stem  j ? 


PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hammill  Missionary  Fund. 


Division 


Section 


.5  64 


Number 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/chinesecharacter00smit_0 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Tung  Chou 
Pagoda 
near  Pekin. 


A Memorial  Arch. 


.'\tive  Children  in  Courtyard. 


Turtle  Monument. 


CHINESE 

CHARACTERISTICS 


BY 


ARTHUR  H.  SMITH 


TWENTY-TWO  YEARS  A MISSIONARY  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  BOARD  IN  CHINA 


¥ 

THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED,  WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


¥ 


FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 
New.  York  Chicago  Toronto 


Copyright,  1894, 

By  Fleming  H.  Revell  Company. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

List  of  Illustrations 7 

Introduction 9 

I.  Face  16 

II.  Economy  19 

III.  Industry 27 

IV.  Politeness 35 

V.  The  Disregard  of  Time 41 

VI.  The  Disregard  of  Accuracy 48 

VII.  The  Talent  for  Misunderstanding 58 

VIII.  The  Talent  for  Indirection 65 

IX.  Flexible  Inflexibility 74 

X.  Intellectual  Turbidity 82 

XI.  The  Absence  of  Nerves 90 

XII.  Contempt  for  Foreigners 98 

XIII.  The  Absence  of  Public  Spirit 107 

XIV.  Conservatism 115 

XV.  Indifference  to  Comfort  and  Convenience 125 

XVI.  Physical  Vitality 144 

XVII.  Patience  and  Perseverance 152 

5 


6 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVIII.  Content  and  Cheerfulness 162 

XIX.  Filial  Piety 171 

XX.  Benevolence  186 

XXI.  The  Absence  of  Sympathy 194 

XXII.  Social  Typhoons 217 

XXIII.  Mutual  Responsibility  and  Respect  for  Law  . . . 226 

XXIV.  Mutual  Suspicion 242 

XXV.  The  Absence  of  Sincerity 266 

XXVI.  Polytheism,  Pantheism,  Atheism 287 

XXVII.  The  Real  Condition  of  China  and  Her  Present 

Needs 314 

Glossary 331 

Index 333 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.* 


Tung-Chou  Pagoda,  near  Peking - 

A Memorial  Arch 

> Frontispiece. 

Native  Children  in  Courtyard 

Turtle  Monument - 

FACING  PAGE 

A Chinese  Kitchen,  showing  Method  of  Preparing  Food  . . 19 

Passenger  Boat  on  the  Pei  Ho,  North  China 30 

Carpenters  Sawing  Large  Timber 44 

A Peking  Cart  60 

Chinese  Card-players 70 

A Chinese  Barber  118 

A Middle-class  Family  in  Winter  Dress 127 

Interior  of  a Mohammedan  Mosque 171 

Native  Women  Sewing  and  Weaving  Lace 200 

Four  Generations  217 

A Portion  of  the  Great  Chinese  Wall  242 

A Chinese  Boys’  School  (Christian)  251 

The  Temple  of  Heaven,  Peking 287 

A Chinese  Idol 300 

Camel’s-back  Bridge,  on  the  Grounds  of  the  Emperor’s 
Summer  Palace 318 

* For  the  use  of  original  photographs,  from  which  engravings  have  been  made  and  here 
published  for  the  first  time,  the  author  and  publishers  desire  to  acknowledge  their 
indebtedness  to  Miss  J.  G.  Evans  of  Tung-Chou,  for  frontispiece  and  dlustrations  facing 
pages  30,  44,  118,  171,  217,  242,  and  300;  and  to  the  Rev.  G.  S.  Hays  of  Chefoo,  for  illus- 
trations facing  pages  19,  70,  200,  and  251. 


7 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A WITNESS  when  put  upon  the  stand  is  expected  to  tell 
the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth. 
Many  witnesses  concerning  the  Chinese  have  told  the  truth, 
but  perhaps  few  of  them  have  succeeded  in  telling  nothing 
but  the  truth,  and  no  one  of  them  has  ever  told  the  whole 
truth.  No  single  individual,  whatever  the  extent  of  his  knowl- 
edge, could  by  any  possibility  know  the  whole  truth  about 
the  Chinese.  The  present  volume  of  essays  is  therefore  open 
to  objection  from  three  different  points  of  view. 

First,  it  may  be  said  that  the  attempt  to  convey  to  others 
an  idea  of  the  real  characteristics  of  the  Chinese  is  vain. 
Mr.  George  Wingrove  Cooke,  the  China  correspondent  of  the 
London  Times  in  1857-58,  enjoyed  as  good  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  the  Chinese  under  varied  circumstances,  and  through 
the  eyes  of  those  well  qualified  to  help  him  to  a just  under- 
standing of  the  people,  as  any  writer  on  China  up  to  that 
time.  In  the  preface  to  his  published  letters,  Mr.  Cooke 

9 


IO 


INTRODUCTION 


apologises  as  follows  for  his  failure  to  describe  the  Chinese 
character : “ I have,  in  these  letters,  introduced  no  elaborate 
essay  upon  Chinese  character.  It  is  a great  omission.  No 
theme  could  be  more  tempting,  no  subject  could  afford  wider 
scope  for  ingenious  hypothesis,  profound  generalisation,  and 
triumphant  dogmatism.  Every  small  critic  will  probably 
utterly  despise  me  for  not  having  made  something  out  of 
such  opportunities.  The  truth  is,  that  I have  written  several 
very  fine  characters  for  the  whole  Chinese  race,  but  having 
the  misfortune  to  have  the  people  under  my  eye  at  the  same 
time  with  my  essay,  they  were  always  saying  something  or 
doing  something  which  rubbed  so  rudely  against  my  hypothe- 
sis, that  in  the  interest  of  truth  I burnt  several  successive 
letters.  I may  add  that  I have  often  talked  over  this  matter 
with  the  most  eminent  and  candid  sinologues,  and  have 
always  found  them  ready  to  agree  with  me  as  to  the  impos- 
sibility of  a conception  of  Chinese  character  as  a whole. 
These  difficulties,  however,  occur  only  to  those  who  know  the 
Chinese  practically ; a smart  writer,  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
subject,  might  readily  strike  off  a brilliant  and  antithetical 
analysis,  which  should  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  but  truth. 
Some  day,  perhaps,  we  may  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge 
to  give  to  each  of  the  glaring  inconsistencies  of  a Chinaman’s 
mind  its  proper  weight  and  influence  in  the  general  mass.  At 
present,  I,  at  least,  must  be  content  to  avoid  strict  definitions, 
and  to  describe  a Chinaman*  by  his  most  prominent  qualities.” 

Within  the  past  thirty  years,  the  Chinese  has  made  himself 
a factor  in  the  affairs  of  many  lands.  He  is  seen  to  be  irre- 

* It  is  a matter  of  surprise,  and  even  more  of  regret,  that  this  barba- 
rous compound  seems  to  have  rooted  itself  in  the  English  language,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  proper  word  Chinese.  We  do  not  know  of  a foreign 
periodical  in  China  in  which  natives  of  that  country  are  not  constantly 
called  “ Chinamen,”  nor  of  a single  writer  in  the  Empire  who  consistently 
avoids  the  use  of  the  term. 


INTRODUCTION 


ii 


pressible ; is  felt  to  be  incomprehensible.  He  cannot,  indeed, 
be  rightly  understood  in  any  country  but  China,  yet  the  im- 
pression still  prevails  that  he  is  a bundle  of  contradictions  who 
cannot  be  understood  at  all.  But  after  all  there  is  no  ap- 
parent reason,  now  that  several  hundred  years  of  our  ac- 
quaintance with  China  have  elapsed,  why  what  is  actually 
known  of  its  people  should  not  be  co-ordinated,  as  well  as 
any  other  combination  of  complex  phenomena. 

A more  serious  objection  to  this  particular  volume  is  that 
the  author  has  no  adequate  qualifications  for  writing  it.  The 
circumstance  that  a person  has  lived  for  twenty-two  years  in 
China  is  no  more  a guarantee  that  he  is  competent  to  write 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  Chinese,  than  the  fact  that  another 
man  has  for  twenty-two  years  been  buried  in  a silver  mine  is 
a proof  that  he  is  a fit  person  to  compose  a treatise  on  metal- 
lurgy, or  on  bi-metallism.  China  is  a vast  whole,  and  one 
who  has  never  even  visited  more  than  half  its  provinces,  and 
who  has  lived  in  but  two  of  them,  is  certainly  not  entitled  to 
generalise  for  the  whole  Empire.  These  papers  were  origi- 
nally prepared  for  the  North-China  Daily  News  of  Shanghai, 
with  no  reference  to  any  wider  circulation.  Some  of  the 
topics  treated  excited,  however,  so  much  interest,  not  only  in 
China,  but  also  in  Great  Britain,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
Canada,  that  the  author  was  asked  to  reproduce  the  articles 
in  a permanent  form.* 

A third  objection,  which  will  be  offered  by  some,  is  that 
parts  of  the  views  here  presented,  especially  those  which  deal 
with  the  moral  character  of  the  Chinese,  are  misleading  and 
unjust. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  impressions  are 
not  like  statistics  which  may  be  corrected  to  a fraction.  They 

* “ Chinese  Characteristics  ” was  published  in  Shanghai  in  1890;  after 
being  widely  circulated  throughout  China  and  the  East,  the  edition  was 
exhausted  more  than  two  years  ago. 


INTRODUCTION 


I 2 

rather  resemble  photographic  negatives,  no  two  of  which  may 
be  alike,  yet  each  of  them  may  present  truthfully  something 
not  observable  in  any  of  the  rest.  The  plates  on  which  the 
photographs  are  taken  differ ; so  do  the  lenses,  and  the  develop- 
ers, and  the  resulting  views  differ  too. 

Many  old  residents  of  Cliina,  whose  knowledge  of  the 
country  is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the  writer,  have  ex- 
pressed themselves  as  in  substantial  agreement  with  his  opin- 
ions, while  others,  whose  judgment  is  entitled  to  equal  respect, 
think  that  a somewhat  lighter  colouring  in  certain  parts  would 
increase  the  fidelity  of  the  too  “ monochromatic  ” picture. 
With  this  undoubtedly  just  criticism  in  mind,  the  work  has 
been  revised  and  amended  throughout.  While  the  exigencies 
of  republication  at  this  time  have  rendered  convenient  the 
omission  of  one-third  of  the  characteristics  originally  dis- 
cussed, those  that  remain  contain  nevertheless  the  most  im- 
portant portions  of  the  whole,  and  the  chapter  on  Content  and 
Cheerfulness  is  altogether  new. 

There  can  be  no  valid  excuse  for  withholding  commendation 
from  the  Chinese  for  any  one  of  the  many  good  qualities  which 
they  possess  and  exhibit.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  a danger 
of  yielding  to  a priori  considerations,  and  giving  the  Chinese 
credit  for  a higher  practical  morality  than  they  can  justly  claim 
— an  evil  not  less  serious  than  indiscriminate  condemnation, 
ft  is  related  of  Thackeray,  that  he  was  once  asked  how  it  hap- 
pened that  the  good  people  in  his  novels  were  always  stupid, 
and  the  bad  people  clever.  To  this  the  great  satirist  replied 
that  he  had  no  brains  above  his  eyes.  There  is  a wood-cut 
representing  an  oak  tree,  in  the  outlines  of  which  the  observer 
is  invited  to  detect  a profile  of  Napoleon  on  the  island  of 
St.  Helena,  standing  with  bowed  head  and  folded  arms.  Pro- 
tracted contemplation  frequently  fails  to  discover  any  such 
profile,  and  it  would  seem  that  there  must  be  some  mistake, 
but  when  once  it  is  clearly  pointed  out,  it  is  impossible  to  look 


INTRODUCTION 


I3 


at  the  picture  and  not  see  the  Napoleon  too.  In  like  manner, 
many  things  are  to  be  seen  in  China  which  do  not  at  first 
appear,  and  many  of  them  once  seen  are  never  forgotten. 

While  it  has  been  impossible  to  introduce  a qualifying  clause 
into  every  sentence  which  is  general  in  its  form,  the  reader  is 
expressly  warned  that  these  papers  are  not  intended  to  be 
generalisations  for  a whole  Empire,  nor  yet  comprehensive 
abstracts  of  what  foreigners  have  observed  and  experienced. 
What  they  are  intended  to  be  is  merely  a notation  of  the  im- 
pression which  has  been  made  upon  one  observer,  by  a few 
out  of  many  “ Chinese  Characteristics.”  They  are  not  meant 
as  a portrait  of  the  Chinese  people,  but  rather  as  mere  outline 
sketches  in  charcoal  of  some  features  of  the  Chinese  people,  as 
they  have  been  seen  by  that  one  observer.  Taken  together, 
they  constitute  only  a single  ray,  of  which  an  indefinite  number 
are  required  to  form  a complete  beam  of  white  light.  They 
may  also  be  considered  as  studies  in  induction,  in  which  many 
particulars  taken  from  the  experience  not  of  the  writer  only, 
but  of  various  other  individuals  at  various  times,  are  grouped. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  subject  has  been  so  largely  treated 
by  exemplification. 

Mr.  Meadows,  the  most  philosophical  of  the  many  writers 
on  China  and  the  Chinese,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
best  way  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  another  person  a correct 
idea  of  the  genius  of  a foreign  people  would  be  to  hand  him 
for  perusal  a collection  of  notes,  formed  by  carefully  recording 
great  numbers  of  incidents  which  had  attracted  one’s  attention, 
particularly  those  that  seemed  at  all  extraordinary,  together 
with  the  explanation  of  the  extraordinary  parts  as  given  by 
natives  of  the  country. 

From  a sufficient  number  of  such  incidents  a general  prin-  _ 
ciple  is  inferred.  The  inferences  may  be  doubted  or  denied, 
but  such  particulars  as  are  cited  cannot,  for  that  reason  alone, 
be  set  aside,  being  so  far  as  they  go  truthful,  and  they  must 


i4 


INTRODUCTION 


ultimately  be  reckoned  with  in  any  theory  of  the  Chinese 
character. 

The  difficulty  of  comparing  Chinese  with  Anglo-Saxons  will 
be  most  strongly  felt  by  those  who  have  attempted  it.  To 
such  it  will  soon  become  evident  that  many  things  which 
seem  “ characteristic  ” of  the  Chinese  are  merely  Oriental 
traits ; but  to  what  extent  this  is  true,  each  reader  in  the  light 
of  his  own  experience  must  judge  for  himself. 

It  has  been  said  that  in  the  present  stage  of  our  intercourse 
with  Chinese  there  are  three  ways  in  which  we  can  come  to 
some  knowledge  of  their  social  life — by  the  study  of  their 
novels,  their  ballads,  and  their  plays.  Each  of  these  sources 
of  information  doubtless  has  its  worth,  but  there  is  likewise 
a fourth,  more  valuable  than  all  of  them  combined,  a source 
not  open  to  every  one  who  writes  on  China  and  the  Chinese. 
It  is  the  study  of  the  family  life  of  the  Chinese  in  their  own 
homes.  As  the  topography  of  a district  can  be  much  better 
understood  in  the  country  than  in  the  city,  so  it  is  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  people.  A foreigner  may  live  in  a Chi- 
nese city  for  a decade,  and  not  gain  as  much  knowledge  of 
the  interior  life  of  the  people  as  he  can  acquire  by  living  twelve 
months  in  a Chinese  village.  Next  to  the  Family  we  must 
regard  the  Village  as  the  unit  of  Chinese  social  life,  and  it  is 
therefore  from  the  standpoint  of  a Chinese  village  that  these 
papers  have  been  written.  They  are  of  purpose  not  intended 
to  represent  the  point  of  view  of  a missionary,  but  that  of  an 
observer  not  consciously  prejudiced,  who  simply  reports  what 
he  sees.  For  this  reason  no  reference  is  made  to  any  charac- 
teristics of  the  Chinese  as  they  may  be  modified  by  Christian- 
ity. It  is  not  assumed  that  the  Chinese  need  Christianity  at 
all,  but  if  it  appears  that  there  are  grave  defects  in  their  char- 
acter, it  is  a fair  question  how  those  defects  may  be  remedied. 

The  “ Chinese  question,”  as  already  remarked,  is  now  far 
more  than  a national  one.  It  is  international.  There  is  rea- 


INTRODUCTION 


15 


son  to  think  that  in  the  twentieth  century  it  will  be  an  even 
more  pressing  question  than  at  present.  The  problem  of  the 
means  by  which  so  vast  a part  of  the  human  race  may  be  im- 
proved cannot  be  without  interest  to  any  one  who  wishes 
well  to  mankind.  If  the  conclusions  to  which  we  may  find 
ourselves  led  are  correct,  they  will  be  supported  by  a line  of 
argument  heretofore  too  much  neglected.  If  these  conclusions 
are  wrong,  they  will,  however  supported,  fall  of  themselves. 

It  is  many  years  since  Lord  Elgin’s  reply  to  an  address 
from  the  merchants  of  Shanghai,  but  his  words  are  true  and 
pertinent  to-day.  “ When  the  barriers  which  prevent  free 
access  to  the  interior  of  the  country  shall  have  been  removed, 
Christian  civilisation  of  the  West  will  find  itself  face  to  face 
not  with  barbarism,  but  with  an  ancient  civilisation  in  many 
respects  effete  and  imperfect,  but  in  others  not  without  claims 
to  our  sympathy  and  respect.  In  the  rivalry  which  will  then 
ensue,  Christian  civilisation  will  have  to  win  its  way  among  a 
sceptical  and  ingenious  people,  by  making  it  manifest  that  a 
faith  which  reaches  to  heaven  furnishes  better  guarantees  for 
public  and  private  morality  than  one  which  does  not  rise 
above  the  earth.” 


CHAPTER  I. 


FACE. 


first  sight  nothing  can  be  more  irrational  than  to  call 


that  which  is  shared  with  the  whole  human  race  a “ char- 
acteristic ” of  the  Chinese.  But  the  word  “ face  ” does  not  in 
China  signify  simply  the  front  part  of  the  head,  but  is  literally 
a compound  noun  of  multitude,  with  more  meanings  than  we 
shall  be  able  to  describe,  or  perhaps  to  comprehend. 

In  order  to  understand,  however  imperfectly,  what  is  meant 
by  “ face,”  we  must  take  account  of  the  fact  that  as  a race  the 
Chinese  have  a strongly  dramatic  instinct.  The  theatre  may 
almost  be  said  to  be  the  only  national  amusement,  and  the 
Chinese  have  for  theatricals  a passion  like  that  of  the  English- 
man for  athletics,  or  the  Spaniard  for  bull-fights.  Upon  very 
slight  provocation,  any  Chinese  regards  himself  in  the  light  of 
an  actor  in  a drama.  He  throws  himself  into  theatrical  atti- 
tudes, performs  the  salaam,  falls  upon  his  knees,  prostrates  him- 
self and  strikes  his  head  upon  the  earth,  under  circumstances 
which  to  an  Occidental  seem  to  make  such  actions  super- 
fluous, not  to  say  ridiculous.  A Chinese  thinks  in  theatrical 
terms.  When  roused  in  self-defence  he  addresses  two  or 
three  persons  as  if  they  were  a multitude.  He  exclaims : “ I 
say  this  in  the  presence  of  You,  and  You,  and  You,  who  are  all 
here  present.”  If  his  troubles  are  adjusted  he  speaks  of  him- 
self as  having  “ got  off  the  stage  ” with  credit,  and  if  they  are 
not  adjusted  he  finds  no  way  to  “retire  from  the  stage.”  All 
this,  be  it  clearly  understood,  has  nothing  to  do  with  realities. 


FACE 


*7 


The  question  is  never  of  facts,  but  always  of  form.  If  a fine 
speech  has  been  delivered  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  proper 
way,  the  requirement  of  the  play  is  met.  We  are  not  to  go 
behind  the  scenes,  for  that  would  spoil  all  the  plays  in  the 
world.  Properly  to  execute  acts  like  these  in  all  the  complex 
relations  of  life,  is  to  have  “ face.”  To  fail  of  them,  to  ignore 
them,  to  be  thwarted  in  the  performance  of  them,  this  is  to 
“ lose  face.”  Once  rightly  apprehended,  “ face  ” will  be  found 
to  be  in  itself  a key  to  the  combination  lock  of  many  of  the 
most  important  characteristics  of  the  Chinese. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  principles  which  regulate  “face” 
and  its  attainment  are  often  wholly  beyond  the  intellectual 
apprehension  of  the  Occidental,  who  is  constantly  forgetting 
the  theatrical  element,  and  wandering  off  into  the  irrelevant 
regions  of  fact.  To  him  it  often  seems  that  Chinese  “face” 
is  not  unlike  the  South  Sea  Island  taboo,  a force  of  undeniable 
potency,  but  capricious,  and  not  reducible  to  rule,  deserving 
only  to  be  abolished  and  replaced  by  common  sense.  At  this 
point  Chinese  and  Occidentals  must  agree  to  disagree,  for  they 
can  never  be  brought  to  view  the  same  things  in  the  same 
light.  In  the  adjustment  of  the  incessant  quarrels  which 
distract  every  hamlet,  it  is  necessary  for  the  “peace-talkers” 
to  take  as  careful  account  of  the  balance  of  “ face  ” as  Euro- 
pean statesmen  once  did  of  the  balance  of  power.  The  object 
in  such  cases  is  not  the  execution  of  even-handed  justice, 
which,' even  if  theoretically  desirable,  seldom  occurs  to  an 
Oriental  as  a possibility,  but  such  an  arrangement  as  will  dis- 
tribute to  all  concerned  “ face  ” in  due  proportions.  The 
same  principle  often  obtains  in  the  settlement  of  lawsuits,  a 
very  large  percentage  of  which  end  in  what  may  be  called  a 
drawn  game. 

To  offer  a person  a handsome  present  is  to  “ give  him  face.” 
But  if  the  gift  be  from  an  individual  it  should  be  accepted  only 
in  part,  but  should  seldom  or  never  be  altogether  refused.  A 


i8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


few  examples  of  the  thirst  for  keeping  face  will  suffice  for  illus- 
tration. To  be  accused  of  a fault  is  to  “lose  face,”  and  the 
fact  must  be  denied,  no  matter  what  the  evidence,  in  order 
to  save  face.  A tennis-ball  is  missed,  and  it  is  more  than  sus- 
pected that  a coolie  picked  it  up.  He  indignantly  denies  it, 
but  goes  to  the  spot  where  the  ball  disappeared,  and  soon 
finds  it  lying  there  (dropped  out  of  his  sleeve),  remarking, 
“ Here  is  your  ‘ lost  ’ ball.”  The  waiting-woman  who  secreted 
the  penknife  of  a guest  in  her  master’s  house  afterwards  dis- 
covers it  under  the  table-cloth,  and  ostentatiously  produces  it. 
In  each  case  “ face  ” is  saved.  The  servant  who  has  care- 
lessly lost  an  article  which  he  knows  he  must  replace  or  forfeit 
an  equivalent  from  his  wages,  remarks  loftily,  as  he  takes  his 
dismissal,  “ The  money  for  that  silver  spoon  I do  not  want,” 
and  thus  his  “ face  ” is  intact.  A man  has  a debt  owing  to 
him  which  he  knows  that  he  shall  not  collect ; but  going  to 
the  debtor,  he  raises  a terrible  disturbance,  by  which  means 
he  shows  that  he  knows  what  ought  to  be  done.  He  does 
not  get  the  money,  but  he  saves  his  “ face,”  and  thus  secures 
himself  from  imposition  in  the  future.  A servant  neglects  or 
refuses  to  perform  some  duty.  Ascertaining  that  his  master 
intends  to  turn  him  off,  he  repeats  his  former  offence,  dismisses 
himself,  and  saves  his  “ face.” 

To  save  one’s  face  and  lose  one’s  life  would  not  seem  to 
us  very  attractive,  but  we  have  heard  of  a Chinese  District 
Magistrate  who,  as  a special  favour,  was  allowed  to  be  be- 
headed in  his  robes  of  office  in  order  to  save  his  face! 


A Chinese  Kitchen,  Showing  Method  of  Preparing  Food, 


CHAPTER  II. 


ECONOMY. 


HE  word  “economy”  signifies  the  rule  by  which  the  house 


should  be  ordered,  especially  with  reference  to  the  rela- 
tion between  expenditure  and  income.  Economy,  as  we 
understand  the  term,  may  be  displayed  in  three  several  ways : 
by  limiting  the  number  of  wants,  by  preventing  waste,  and  by 
the  adjustment  of  forces  in  such  a manner  as  to  make  a little 
represent  a great  deal.  In  each  of  these  ways  the  Chinese 
are  pre-eminently  economical. 

One  of  the  first  things  which  impress  the  traveller  in  China 
is  the  extremely  simple  diet  of  the  people.  The  vast  bulk  of 
the  population  seems  to  depend  upon  a few  articles,  such  as 
rice,  beans  in  various  preparations,  millet,  garden  vegetables, 
and  fish.  These,  with  a few  other  things,  form  the  staple  of 
countless  millions,  supplemented  it  may  be  on  the  feast-days, 
or  other  special  occasions,  with  a bit  of  meat. 

Now  that  so  much  attention  is  given  in  Western  lands  to 
the  contrivance  of  ways  in  which  to  furnish  nourishing  food 
to  the  very  poor,  at  a minimum  cost,  it  is  not  without  interest 
to  learn  the  undoubted  fact  that,  in  ordinary  years,  it  is  in 
China  quite  possible  to  furnish  wholesome  food  in  abundant 
quantity  at  a cost  for  each  adult  of  not  more  than  two  cents  a 
day.  Even  in  famine  times,  thousands  of  persons  have  been 
kept  alive  for  months  on  an  allowance  of  not  more  than  a 
cent  and  a half  a day.  This  implies  the  general  existence  in 


20 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


China  of  a high  degree  of  skill  in  the  preparation  of  food. 
Poor  and  coarse  as  their  food  often  is,  insipid  and  even  re- 
pulsive as  it  not  infrequently  seems  to  the  foreigner,  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  recognise  the  fact  that,  in  the  cooking  and 
serving  of  what  they  have,  the  Chinese  are  past-masters  of  the 
culinary  art.  In  this  particular,  Mr.  Wingrove  Cooke  ranked 
them  below  the  French,  and  above  the  English  (and  he  might 
have  added  the  Americans).  Whether  they  are  really  below 
any  one  of  these  nationalities  we  are  by  no  means  so  certain 
as  Mr.  Cooke  may  have  been,  but  their  superiority  to  some 
of  them  is  beyond  dispute.  In  the  few  simple  articles  which 
we  have  mentioned,  it  is  evident  that  even  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  scientific  physiologist,  the  Chinese  have  made  a 
wise  choice  of  their  staple  foods.  The  thoroughness  of  their 
mode  of  preparing  food,  and  the  great  variety  in  which  these 
few  constituents  are  constantly  presented,  are  known  to  all 
who  have  paid  the  least  attention  to  Chinese  cookery. 

Another  fact  of  extreme  significance  does  not  force  itself 
upon  our  notice,  but  can  easily  be  verified.  There  is  very 
little  waste  in  the  preparation  of  Chinese  food,  and  everything 
is  made  to  do  as  much  duty  as  possible.  What  there  is  left 
after  an  ordinary  Chinese  family  have  finished  one  of  their 
meals  would  represent  but  a fraction  of  the  net  cost  of  the 
food.  In  illustration  of  this  general  fact,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  glance  at  the  physical  condition  of  the  Chinese  dog  or  cat. 
On  the  leavings  of  human  beings  it  is  the  unhappy  function 
of  these  animals  to  “ live,”  and  their  lives  are  uniformly  pro- 
tracted at  “ a poor  dying  rate.”  The  populations  of  new 
countries  are  proverbially  wasteful,  and  we  have  not  the  least 
doubt  that  it  would  be  possible  to  support  sixty  millions  of 
Asiatics  in  comparative  luxury  with  the  materials  daily  wasted 
in  a land  like  the  United  States,  where  a living  is  easily  to 
be  had.  But  we  should  like  to  see  how  many  human  beings 
could  be  fattened  from  what  there  is  left  after  as  many  Chinese 


ECONOMY 


21 


have  “ eaten  to  repletion,”  and  the  servants  or  children  have 
all  had  their  turn  at  the  remains!  Even  the  tea  left  in  the 
cups  is  poured  back  into  the  teapot  to  be  heated  again. 

It  is  a fact  which  cannot  fail  to  force  itself  upon  our  notice 
at  every  turn,  that  the  Chinese  are  not  as  a race  gifted  with 
that  extreme  fastidiousness  in  regard  to  food  which  is  fre- 
quently developed  in  Western  lands.  All  is  fish  that  comes  to 
their  net,  and  there  is  very  little  which  does  not  come  there 
first  or  last.  In  the  northern  parts  of  China  the  horse,  the 
mule,  the  ox,  and  the  donkey  are  in  universal  use,  and  in  large 
districts  the  camel  is  made  to  do  full  duty.  Doubtless  it  will 
appear  to  some  of  our  readers  that  economy  is  carried  too  far, 
when  we  mention  that  it  is  the  general  practice  to  eat  all  of 
these  animals  as  soon  as  they  expire,  no  matter  whether  the 
cause  of  death  be  an  accident,  old  age,  or  disease.  This  is 
done  as  a matter  of  course,  and  occasions  no  remark  whatever, 
nor  is  the  habit  given  up  because  the  animal  may  chance  to 
have  died  of  some  epidemic  malady,  such  as  the  pleuro-pneu- 
monia  in  cattle.  Such  meat  is  not  considered  so  wholesome 
as  that  of  animals  which  have  died  of  other  diseases,  and  this 
truth  is  recognised  in  the  lower  scale  of  prices  asked  for  it, 
but  it  is  all  sold,  and  is  all  eaten.  Certain  disturbances  of 
the  human  organisations  into  which  such  diseased  meat  has 
entered  are  well  recognised  by  the  people,  but  it  is  doubtless 
considered  more  economical  to  eat  the  meat  at  the  reduced 
rates,  and  run  the  risk  of  the  consequences,  which,  it  should 
be  said,  are  by  no  means  constant.  Dead  dogs  and  cats  are 
subject  to  the  same  processes  of  absorption  as  dead  horses, 
mules,  and  donkeys.  We  have  been  personally  cognisant  of 
several  cases  in  which  villagers  cooked  and  ate  dogs  which 
had  been  purposely  poisoned  by  strychnine  to  get  rid  of 
them.  On  one  of  these  occasions  some  one  was  thoughtful 
enough  to  consult  a foreign  physician  as  to  the  probable  re- 
sults, but  as  the  animal  was  “ already  in  the  pot,”  the  survivors 


22 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


could  not  make  up  their  minds  to  forego  the  luxury  of  a feast, 
and  no  harm  appeared  to  come  of  their  indulgence! 

Another  example  of  Chinese  economy  in  relation  to  the 
preparation  of  food  is  found  in  the  nice  adjustment  of  the 
material  of  the  cooking-kettles  to  the  exigencies  of  the  requi- 
site fuel.  The  latter  is  scarce  and  dear,  and  consists  generally 
of  nothing  but  the  leaves,  stalks,  and  roots  of  the  crops,  mak- 
ing a rapid  blaze  which  quickly  disappears.  To  meet  the 
needs  of  the  case  the  bottoms  of  the  boilers  are  made  as  thin 
as  possible,  and  require  very  careful  handling.  The  whole 
business  of  collecting  this  indispensable  fuel  is  an  additional 
example  of  economy  in  an  extreme  form.  Every  smallest 
child,  who  can  do  nothing  else,  can  at  least  gather  fuel.  The 
vast  army  of  fuel-gatherers,  which  in  the  autumn  and  winter 
overspread  all  the  land,  leave  not  a weed  behind  the  hungry 
teeth  of  their  bamboo  rakes.  Boys  are  sent  into  the  trees  to 
beat  off  with  clubs  the  autumnal  leaves,  as  if  they  were  chest- 
nuts, and  even  straws  are  scarcely  allowed  leisure  to  show 
which  way  the  wind  blows,  before  some  enterprising  collector 
has  “ seized  ” them. 

Every  Chinese  housewife  knows  how  to  make  the  most  of 
her  materials.  Her  dress  is  not  in  its  pattern  or  its  construc- 
tion wasteful  like  those  of  her  sisters  in  Occidental  countries, 
but  all  is  planned  to  save  time,  strength,  and  material.  The 
tiniest  scrap  of  foreign  stuff  is  always  welcome  to  a Chinese 
woman,  who  will  make  it  reappear  in  forms  of  utility  if  not  of 
beauty,  of  which  a whole  parliament  of  authoresses  of  “ Do- 
mestic Economies”  would  never  have  dreamed.  What  can- 
not be  employed  in  one  place  is  sure  to  be  just  the  tiring 
for  another,  and  a mere  trifle  of  bias  stuff  is  sufficient  for  the 
binding  of  a shoe.  The  benevolent  person  in  London  or  New 
York  who  gives  away  the  clothing  for  which  he  has  no  further 
use  entertains  a wild  hope  that  it  may  not  be  the  means  of 
making  the  recipients  paupers,  and  so  do  more  harm  than 


ECONOMY 


23 


good.  But  whoever  bestows  similar  articles  upon  the  Chinese, 
though  the  stuffs  which  they  use  and  the  style  of  wear  are  so 
radically  different  from  ours,  has  a well-grounded  confidence 
that  the  usefulness  of  those  particular  articles  has  now  at  last 
begun,  and  will  not  be  exhausted  till  there  is  nothing  left  of 
them  for  a base  with  which  other  materials  can  unite. 

The  Chinese  often  present  their  friends  with  complimentary 
inscriptions  written  on  paper  loosely  basted  upon  a silk  back- 
ground. Basting  is  adopted  instead  of  pasting,  in  order  that 
the  recipient  may,  if  he  chooses,  eventually  remove  the  inscrip- 
tion, when  he  will  have  a very  serviceable  piece  of  silk ! 

Chinese  economy  is  exhibited  in  the  transactions  of  retail 
merchants,  to  whom  nothing  is  too  small  for  attention.  A 
dealer  in  odds  and  ends,  for  example,  is  able  to  give  the  pre- 
cise number  of  matches  in  a box  of  each  of  the  different  kinds, 
and  he  knows  to  a fraction  the  profit  on  each  box. 

Every  scrap  of  a Chinese  account-book  is  liable  to  be 
utilised  in  pasting  up  windows,  or  in  the  covering  of  paper 
lanterns. 

The  Chinese  constantly  carry  their  economy  to  the  point  of 
depriving  themselves  of  food  of  which  they  are  really  in  need. 
They  see  nothing  irrational  in  this,  but  do  it  as  a matter  of 
course.  A good  example  is  given  in  Dr.  B.  C.  Henry’s  “The 
Cross  and  the  Dragon.”  He  was  carried  by  three  coolies  for 
five  hours  a distance  of  twenty-three  miles,  his  bearers  then 
returning  to  Canton  to  get  the  breakfast  which  was  furnished 
them.  Forty-six  miles  before  breakfast,  with  a heavy  load 
half  the  way,  to  save  five  cents! 

In  another  case  two  chair  coolies  had  gone  with  a chair 
thirty-five  miles,  and  were  returning  by  boat,  having  had  noth- 
ing to  eat  since  6 a.m.,  rather  than  pay  three  cents  for  two 
large  bowls  of  rice.  The  boat  ran  aground,  and  did  not  reach 
Canton  till  2 p.m.  next  day.  Yet  these  men,  having  gone 
twenty-seven  hours  without  food,  carrying  a load  thirty-five 


24 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


miles,  offered  to  take  Dr.  Henry  fifteen  miles  more  to  Canton, 
and  but  for  his  baggage  would  have  done  so! 

Many  of  the  fruits  of  Chinese  economy  are  not  at  all  pleas- 
ing to  the  Westerners,  but  we  cannot  help  admitting  the 
genuine  nature  of  the  claim  which  may  be  built  on  them.  In 
parts  of  the  Empire,  especially  (strange  to  say)  in  the  north, 
the  children  of  both  sexes  roam  around  in  the  costume  of  the 
Garden  of  Eden,  for  many  months  of  the  year.  This  comes 
to  be  considered  more  comfortable  for  them,  but  the  primary 
motive  is  economy.  The  stridulous  squeak  of  the  vast  army 
of  Chinese  wheelbarrows  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  few 
drops  of  oil  which  might  stop  it,  but  which  never  do  stop  it, 
because  to  those  who  are  gifted  with  “an  absence  of  nerves” 
the  squeak  is  cheaper  than  the  oil. 

If  a Japanese  emigrates,  it  is  specified  in  his  contract  that 
he  is  to  be  furnished  daily  with  so  many  gallons  of  hot  water, 
in  which  he  may,  according  to  custom,  parboil  himself.  The 
Chinese  have  their  bathing-houses  too,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  Chinese  people  never  go  near  them,  nor  indeed  ever  saw 
one.  “ Do  you  wash  your  child  every  day  ? ” said  an  inquisi- 
tive foreign  lady  to  a Chinese  mother,  who  was  seen  throwing 
shovelfuls  of  dust  over  her  progeny,  and  then  wiping  it  off 
with  an  old  broom.  “ Wash  him  every  day  ! ” was  the  indig- 
nant response ; “ he  was  never  washed  since  he  was  born ! ” 
To  the  Chinese  generally,  the  motto  could  never  be  made 
even  intelligible  which  was  put  in  his  window  by  a dealer  in 
soap,  “ Cheaper  than  dirt.” 

The  Chinese  doubtless  regard  the  average  foreigner  as  it 
is  said  the  Italians  do  the  English,  whom  they  term  "soap- 
wasters.”  Washing  of  clothes  in  China  by  and  for  the  Chi- 
nese there  certainly  is,  but  it  is  on  a very  subdued  scale,  and 
in  comparison  with  what  we  call  cleanliness  it  might  almost 
be  left  out  of  account.  Economy  of  material  has  much  to  do 
with  this,  as  we  cannot  help  thinking,  for  many  Chinese  appre- 


ECONOMY 


25 


date  clean  things  as  much  as  we  do,  and  some  of  them  are 
models  of  neatness,  albeit  under  heavy  disadvantages. 

It  is  due  to  the  instinct  of  economy  that  it  is  generally  im- 
possible to  buy  any  tool  ready-made.  You  get  the  parts  in  a 
"raw”  shape,  and  adjust  the  handles,  etc.,  yourselves.  It  is 
generally  cheaper  to  do  this  for  one’s  self  than  to  have  it 
done,  and  as  every  one  takes  this  view  of  it,  nothing  is  to  be 
had  ready-made. 

We  have  spoken  of  economical  adjustments  of  material, 
such  as  that  found  in  ordinary  houses,  where  a dim  light,  which 
costs  next  to  nothing,  is  made  to  diffuse  its  darkness  over  two 
apartments  by  being  placed  in  a hole  in  the  dividing  wall. 
The  best  examples  of  such  adjustments  are  to  be  found  in 
Chinese  manufactures,  such  as  the  weaving  of  all  kinds  of 
fabrics,  working  in  pottery,  metal,  ivory,  etc.  Industries  of 
this  sort  do  not  seem  to  us  to  exemplify  ingenuity  so  much  as 
they  illustrate  Chinese  economy.  Many  better  ways  can  be 
devised  of  doing  Chinese  work  than  the  ways  which  they 
adopt,  but  none  which  make  insignificant  materials  go  further 
than  they  do  with  the  Chinese.  They  seem  to  be  able  to  do 
almost  everything  by  means  of  almost  nothing,  and  this  is  a 
characteristic  generally  of  their  productions,  whether  simple 
or  complex.  It  applies  as  well  to  their  iron-foundries,  on  a 
minute  scale  of  completeness  in  a small  yard,  as  to  a cooking- 
range  of  strong  and  perfect  draft,  made  in  an  hour  out  of  a 
pile  of  mud  bricks,  lasting  indefinitely,  operating  perfectly,  and 
costing  nothing. 

No  better  and  more  characteristic  example  of  economy  of 
materials  in  accomplishing  great  tasks  could  be  found,  even 
in  China,  than  the  arrangements,  or  rather  the  entire  lack  of 
arrangements,  for  the  handling  of  the  enormous  amount  of 
grain  which  is  sent  as  tribute  to  Peking.  This  comes  up  the 
Peiho  from  Tientsin,  and  is  discharged  at  T'ung-chou.  It 
would  surprise  a “ Corn  Exchange  ” merchant  to  find  that  all 


26 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  machinery  needed  for  unloading,  measuring,  and  removing 
this  mountain  of  rice  and  millet  is  simply  an  army  of  coolies, 
a supply  of  boxes  made  like  a truncated  cone,  which  are  the 
“ bushel  ” measures,  and  an  indefinite  number  of  reed  mats. 
Only  this  and  nothing  more.  The  mats  are  spread  on  the 
ground,  the  grain  is  emptied,  remeasured,  sacked,  and  sent  off, 
and  the  mats  being  taken  up,  the  Emperor’s  Com  Exchange 
is  once  more  a mere  mud-bank! 

On  an  American  tobacco  plantation  one  of  the  heaviest  ex- 
penses is  the  building  of  the  long  and  carefully  constructed 
sheds  for  drying.  In  Chinese  tobacco  farms  there  is  for  this 
object  no  expense  at  all.  The  sheds  are  made  of  thatch,  and 
when  they  are  worn  out  the  old  material  is  just  as  good  for 
fuel  as  the  new.  When  the  tobacco  is  picked,  the  stout,  stiff 
stalks  are  left  standing.  Straw  ropes  are  stretched  along  these 
stalks,  and  upon  the  ropes  are  hung  the  tobacco  leaves,  which 
are  taken  in  at  night  with  the  ropes  attached,  like  clothes  hung 
to  a line.  For  simplicity  and  effectiveness  this  device  could 
hardly  be  excelled. 

Every  observant  resident  in  China  would  be  able  to  add  to 
these  illustrations  of  a Chinese  social  fact,  but  perhaps  no 
more  characteristic  instance  could  be  cited  than  the  case  of 
an  old  Chinese  woman,  who  was  found  hobbling  along  in  a 
painfully  slow  way,  and  on  inquiry  of  whom  it  was  ascertained 
that  she  was  going  to  the  home  of  a relative,  so  as  to  die  in  a 
place  convenient  to  the  family  graveyard,  and  thus  avoid  the 
expense  of  coffin-bearers  for  so  long  a distance! 


CHAPTER  III. 


INDUSTRY. 

INDUSTRY  is  defined  as  habitual  diligence  in  any  employ- 
ment— steady  attention  to  business.  In  this  age  of  the 
world  industry  is  one  of  the  most  highly  prized  among  the 
virtues,  and  it  is  one  which  invariably  commands  respect. 

The  industry  of  a people,  speaking  roughly,  may  be  said  to 
unite  the  three  dimensions  of  length,  breadth,  and  thickness ; 
or,  to  use  a different  expression,  it  may  be  said  to  have  two 
qualities  of  extension,  and  one  of  intension.  By  the  quality 
of  length,  we  mean  the  amount  of  time  during  which  the  in- 
dustry is  exercised.  By  the  quality  of  breadth,  we  mean  the 
number  of  persons  to  whom  the  predicate  of  industrious  may 
be  fairly  applied.  By  intension,  we  mean  the  amount  of 
energy  which  is  displayed  in  the  " habitual  diligence,”  and  in 
“ steady  attention  to  business.”  The  aggregate  result  will  be 
the  product  of  these  three  factors.  It  is  by  no  means  always 
the  case  that  the  impressions  of  the  casual  traveller  and  those 
of  the  old  residents  are  the  same,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  casual  travellers,  and  residents  of  the  longest  standing, 
will  agree  in  a profound  conviction  of  the  diligence  of  the 
Chinese  people.  The  very  first  glance  which  a new-comer 
gets  of  the  Chinese,  induces  him  to  think  that  this  people  is 
carrying  out  in  social  affairs  the  maxim  which  John  Wesley 
named  as  the  rule  for  a successful  church — “ All  at  it,  and 
always  at  it.”  Idleness  in  China  is  not  conspicuous.  Every 
one  seeins  to  be  doing  something.  There  are  of  course  plenty 

27 


28 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  wealthy  persons,  albeit  a mere  microscopic  fraction  of  the 
whole  community,  who  can  abundantly  live  without  doing  any 
work,  but  their  life  is  not  ordinarily  of  a kind  which  is  exter- 
nally visible  to  the  foreigner.  Wealthy  people  in  China  do 
not  commonly  retire  from  business,  but  devote  themselves  to 
it  with  the  same  kind  and  degree  of  attention  as  when  they 
were  poor. 

The  Chinese  classify  themselves  as  Scholars,  Farmers,  Work- 
men, and  Merchants.  Let  us  glance  at  each  of  these  subdivi- 
sions of  society,  and  see  what  they  have  to  say  for  the  industry 
of  the  people. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  Occidentals  to  enter  sympa- 
thetically into  such  a scheme  of  education  as  that  of  the 
Chinese.  Its  gross  defects  are  not  likely  to  be  overlooked, 
but  one  feature  of  it  is  adapted  to  thrust  itself  on  the  attention 
at  all  times — it  has  no  real  rewards,  except  for  diligence.  The 
many  back  doors  which  are  always  open  to  those  who  have 
the  money  to  purchase  degrees  would  seem  well  calculated  to 
dampen  the  ardour  of  any  student,  but  such  is  not  the  main 
effect  of  the  sale  of  office.  The  complaint  is  made  in  all  the 
provinces  that  there  are  far  more  eligible  candidates  for  every 
position  than  there  are  positions  to  be  filled.  All  the  ex- 
amination halls,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  seem  to  be 
perpetually  crowded,  and  the  number  of  students  who  com- 
pete in  any  single  prefecture  often  rises  to  above  ten  thousand. 
When  we  consider  the  amount  of  mental  toil  which  the  mere 
entrance  to  any  one  of  these  examinations  involves,  we  get  a 
vivid  conception  of  the  intellectual  industry  of  the  Chinese. 
The  traditional  diligence  of  the  standard  heroes  mentioned  in 
the  Trimetrical  Classic,  who  studied  by  the  light  of  a glow- 
worm, or  who  tied  their  books  to  the  horns  of  the  ox  with 
which  they  were  ploughing,  is  imitated  at  the  present  day, 
with  various  degrees  of  approximation,  by  thousands  in  all 
parts  of  China.  In  many  cases  this  industry  begins  to  dis- 


INDUSTRY 


29 


appear  with  the  initial  success  of  the  first  degree,  but  the 
Chinese  do  not  consider  such  a one  a scholar  at  all,  but  re- 
serve this  title  of  honour  for  those  who  keep  on  in  the  narrow 
and  thorny  path,  until  at  length  their  perseverance  is  crowned 
with  success.  In  what  land  but  China  would  it  be  possible 
to  find  examples  of  a grandfather,  son,  and  grandson  all  com- 
peting in  the  same  examination  for  the  same  degree,  age  and 
indomitable  perseverance  being  rewarded  at  the  age  of  eighty 
years  by  the  long-coveted  honour  ? 

In  the  spring  of  1889  various  memorials  appeared  in  the 
Peking  Gazette  relating  to  aged  candidates  at  the  provincial 
examinations.  The  Governor-General  reported  that  at  the 
autumnal  examination  in  Foochow  nine  candidates  over  eighty 
years  of  age,  and  two  over  ninety,  went  through  the  prescribed 
tests  and  sent  in  essays  of  which  the  composition  was  good 
and  the  handwriting  firm  and  distinct.  Aged  candidates,  he 
says,  who  have  passed  through  an  interval  of  sixty  years  from 
attaining  their  bachelor’s  degree,  and  who  have  attended  the 
three  last  examinations  for  the  higher,  are,  if  unsuccessful  the 
fourth  time,  entitled  to  an  honorary  degree.  The  Governor 
of  Honan  in  like  manner  reported  thirteen  candidates  over 
eighty  years  of  age,  and  one  over  ninety,  who  all  “went 
through  the  whole  nine  days’  ordeal,  and  wrote  essays  which 
were  perfectly  accurate  in  diction  and  showed  no  signs  of  fail- 
ing years.”  But  even  this  astonishing  record  was  surpassed  in 
the  province  of  Anhui,  where  thirty-five  of  the  competitors 
were  over  eighty  years  of  age,  and  eighteen  over  ninety! 
Could  any  other  country  afford  a spectacle  like  this  ? 

If  the  life  of  the  scholar  in  China  is  one  of  unremitting  dili- 
gence, that  of  the  farmer  is  not  less  so.  His  work,  like  that  of 
a housekeeper,  is  never  done.  With  the  exception  of  a com- 
paratively brief  period  in  the  middle  of  the  winter,  throughout 
the  northern  provinces  there  never  appears  to  be  a time  when 
there  is  not  only  something  to  do,  but  a great  deal  of  it. 


3° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Doubtless  this  is  more  or  less  true  of  farming  everywhere, 
but  the  Chinese  farmer  is  industrious  with  an  industry  which 
it  would  be  difficult  to  surpass. 

That  which  is  true  of  the  farmer  class,  is  true  with  still 
greater  emphasis  of  the  mere  labourer,  who  is  driven  by  the 
constant  and  chronic  reappearance  of  the  wolf  at  his  door  to 
spend  his  life  in  an  everlasting  grind.  As  the  farmer  bestows 
the  most  painstaking  thought  and  care  upon  every  separate 
stalk  of  cabbage,  picking  off  carefully  each  minute  insect, 
thus  at  last  tiring  out  the  ceaseless  swarms  by  his  own  greater 
perseverance,  so  does  the  labourer  watch  for  the  most  insig- 
nificant job,  that  he  may  have  something  for  his  stomach  and 
for  his  back,  and  for  other  stomachs  and  backs  that  are  wholly 
dependent  upon  him.  Those  who  have  occasion  to  travel 
where  cart-roads  exist,  will  often  be  obliged  to  rise  soon  after 
midnight  and  pursue  their  journey,  for  such,  they  are  told,  is 
the  custom.  But  no  matter  at  what  hour  one  is  on  the  way, 
there  are  small  bodies  of  peasants  patrolling  the  roads,  with 
fork  in  hand  and  basket  on  their  back,  watching  for  oppor- 
tunities to  collect  a little  manure.  When  there  is  no  other 
work  pressing,  this  is  an  invariable  and  an  inexhaustible  re- 
source. 

It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  those  who  are  hard 
pressed  to  find  the  means  of  support,  following  two  different 
lines  of  occupation  which  dovetail  into  each  other.  Thus  the 
boatmen  of  Tientsin,  whose  business  is  spoiled  by  the  closing 
of  the  rivers,  take  to  the  swift  ice-sled,  by  which  means  it  is 
possible  to  be  transported  rapidly  at  a minimum  cost.  In  the 
same  way,  most  of  the  rural  population  of  some  districts  spend 
all  the  time  which  can  be  spared  from  the  exigencies  of  farm 
work  in  making  hats  or  in  plaiting  the  braid,  now  so  large  an 
article  of  export.  Chinese  women  are  not  often  seen  without 
a shoe-sole  in  their  hands  on  which  they  are  perpetually  tak- 
ing stitches,  even  while  talking  gossip  at  the  entrance  of  their 


Passenger  Boat  on  the  Pei  Ho  North  China. 


INDUSTRY 


31 


alleys ; or  perhaps  it  is  a reel  of  cotton  which  they  are  spinning. 
But  idle  they  are  not. 

The  indefatigable  activity  of  the  classes  which  have  been 
named  is  well  matched  by  that  of  the  merchants  and  their  em- 
ployes. The  life  of  a merchant’s  clerk,  even  in  Western  lands, 
is  not  that  of  one  who  holds  a sinecure,  but  as  compared  with 
that  of  a Chinese  clerk  it  is  comparative  idleness.  For  to  the 
work  of  the  latter  there  is  no  end.  His  holidays  are  few  and 
his  tasks  heavy,  though  they  may  be  interspersed  with  periods 
of  comparative  torpor. 

Chinese  shops  are  always  opened  early,  and  they  close  late. 
The  system  of  bookkeeping  by  a species  of  double  entry  ap- 
pears to  be  so  minute  that  the  accountants  are  often  kept 
busy  till  a very  late  hour  recording  the  sales  and  balancing 
the  entries.  When  nothing  else  remains  to  be  done,  clerks 
can  be  set  to  sorting  over  the  brass  cash  taken  in,  in  quest  of 
rare  coins  which  may  be  sold  at  a profit. 

It  is  a matter  of  surprise  that  the  most  hard-worked  class 
of  the  Chinese  race  is  that  class  which  is  most  envied,  and 
into  which  every  ambitious  Chinese  strives  to  raise  himself — to 
wit,  the  official.  The  number  and  variety  of  transactions  with 
which  a Chinese  official  of  any  rank  must  occupy  himself,  and 
for  the  success  of  which  he  is  not  only  theoretically  but  very 
practically  responsible,  is  likewise  surprising.  How  would  our 
Labour  Unions,  who  are  so  strenuous  about  the  coming  Eight 
Hours  a Day,  relish  a programme  of  a day’s  work  such  as  the 
following,  which  is  taken  from  a statement  made  to  an  inter- 
preter in  one  of  the  Foreign  Legations  in  Peking  by  an  emi- 
nent Chinese  statesman?  “ I once  asked  a member  of  the 
Chinese  cabinet,  who  was  complaining  of  fatigue  and  over- 
work, for  an  account  of  his  daily  routine.  He  replied  that  he 
left  home  every  morning  at  two  o’clock,  as  he  was  on  duty 
at  the  Palace  from  three  to  six.  As  a member  of  the  Privy 
Council,  he  was  engaged  in  that  body  from  six  until  nine. 


32 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


From  nine  until  eleven  he  was  at  the  War  Department,  of 
which  he  was  President.  Being  a member  of  the  Board  of 
Punishment,  he  was  in  attendance  at  the  office  of  that  body 
daily  from  twelve  until  two,  and,  as  one  of  the  senior  Minis- 
ters of  the  Foreign  Office,  he  spent  every  day,  from  two  till 
five  or  six  in  the  afternoon,  there.  These  were  his  regular 
daily  duties.  In  addition  to  them  he  was  frequently  appointed 
to  serve  on  special  boards  or  commissions,  and  these  he  sand- 
wiched in  between  the  others  as  he  could.  He  seldom 
reached  home  before  seven  or  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening.” 
It  is  not  strange  to  be  told  that  this  officer  died  six  months 
after  this  conversation,  from  overwork  and  exhaustion,  nor  is 
it  at  all  unlikely  that  the  same  state  of  things  may  put  an  end 
to  many  careers  in  China  the  continuance  of  which  would  have 
been  valuable  to  the  interests  of  the  government. 

The  quality  of  extension,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  applies 
to  the  number  of  those  who  are  industrious,  but  it  also  applies 
to  the  extent  of  time  covered  by  that  industry,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  very  great.  The  Chinese  day  begins  at  a dim 
period,  often  not  at  a great  remove  from  midnight.  The 
Emperor  holds  his  daily  audiences  at  an  hour  when  every 
Court  of  Europe  is  wrapped  in  the  embrace  of  Morpheus.  To 
an  Occidental  this  seems  simply  inexplicable,  but  to  a Chinese 
it  doubtless  appears  the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world.  And 
the  conduct  of  the  Son  of  Heaven  is  imitated  more  or  less 
closely  by  the  subjects  of  the  Son  of  Heaven,  in  all  parts  of  his 
Empire.  The  copper  workers  of  Canton,  the  tinfoil  workers 
of  Foochow,  the  wood-carvers  of  Ningpo,  the  rice-mill  workers 
of  Shanghai,  the  cotton-cleaners  and  workers  in  the  treadmill 
for  bolting  flour  in  the  northern  provinces,  may  all  be  heard 
late  at  night,  and  at  a preposterous  hour  in  the  morning. 
Long  before  daylight  the  traveller  comes  upon  a countryman 
who  has  already  reached  a distance  of  many  miles  from  his 
home,  where  he  is  posted  in  the  darkness  waiting  for  the  com- 
ing of  daylight,  when  he  will  begin  the  sale  of  his  cabbages! 


INDUSTRY 


33 


By  the  time  an  Occidental  has  had  his  breakfast,  a Chinese 
market  is  nearly  over.  There  are  few  more  significant  con- 
trasts than  are  suggested  by  a stroll  along  the  principal  street 
in  Shanghai,  at  the  hour  of  half-past  five  on  a summer’s  morn- 
ing. The  lordly  European,  who  built  those  palaces  which 
line  the  water-front,  and  who  does  his  business  therein,  is 
conspicuous  by  his  total  absence,  but  the  Asiatic  is  on  hand 
in  full  force,  and  has  been  on  hand  for  a long  time.  It  will 
be  hours  before  the  Occidentals  begin  to  jostle  the  Chinese 
from  the  sidewalks,  and  to  enter  with  luxurious  ease  on  their 
round  of  work,  and  by  that  time  the  native  will  have  finished 
half  his  day’s  labour. 

Sir  John  Davis  was  quite  right  in  his  comments  on  the 
cheerful  labozcr  of  the  Chinese,  as  a sign  that  their  government 
has  succeeded  in  seeming  them  great  content  with  their  con- 
dition. This  quality  of  their  labour  is  one  of  its  most  striking 
characteristics,  and  to  be  comprehended  must  be  long  observed 
and  well  weighed. 

It  remains  to  say  a word  of  the  quality  of  intension  in  Chi- 
nese industry.  The  Chinese  are  Asiatics,  and  they  work  as 
such.  It  is  in  vain  to  attempt  to  make  over  this  virile  race  on 
the  model  of  our  own.  To  us  they  certainly  appear  lacking 
in  the  heartiness  which  we  esteem  so  highly.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  needs  no  scriptural  hint  to  enable  him  to  see  the  im- 
portance of  doing  with  his  might  what  his  hand  finds  to  do, 
but  the  Chinese  cannot  be  made  to  change  his  pace,  though 
the  combined  religions  and  philosophy  of  the  ages  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  him.  He  has  profited  by  the  accumu- 
lated experience  of  millenniums,  and,  like  the  gods  of  Homer, 
he  is  never  in  a hurry. 

One  cannot  help  forecasting  a time  when  the  white  and  the 
yellow  races  will  come  into  a keener  competition  than  any  yet 
known.  When  that  inevitable  day  shall  have  arrived,  which 
of  them  will  have  to  go  to  the  wall? 

Surely  if  Solomon  was  right  in  his  economic  maxim  that 


34 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich,  the  Chinese  ought  to  be 
among  the  most  prosperous  of  the  peoples  of  the  earth.  And 
so  they  doubtless  would  be,  if  there  were  with  them  a balance 
of  virtues,  instead  of  a conspicuous  absence  of  some  of  those 
fundamental  qualities  which,  however  they  may  be  enumerated 
as  “ constant  virtues,”  are  chiefly  " constant  ” in  their  absence. 
When,  by  whatever  means,  these  qualities  of  honesty  and  sin- 
cerity shall  have  been  restored  to  their  theoretical  place  in  the 
Chinese  moral  consciousness,  then  (and  not  sooner)  will  the 
Chinese  reap  the  full  reward  of  their  unmatched  Industry. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


POLITENESS, 


HERE  are  two  quite  different  aspects  in  which  the  polite- 


ness of  the  Chinese,  and  of  Oriental  peoples  generally, 
may  be  viewed — the  one  of  appreciation,  the  other  of  criti- 
cism. The  Anglo-Saxon,  as  we  are  fond  of  reminding  our- 
selves, has,  no  doubt,  many  virtues,  and  among  them  is  to  be 
found  a very  large  percentage  of  fortiter  in  re , but  a very  small 
percentage  of  suaviter  in  modo.  When,  therefore,  we  come  to 
the  Orient,  and  find  the  vast  populations  of  the  immense  Asi- 
atic continent  so  greatly  our  superiors  in  the  art  of  lubricating 
the  friction  which  is  sure  to  arise  in  the  intercourse  of  man 
with  man,  we  are  filled  with  that  admiration  which  is  the  tribute 
of  those  who  cannot  do  a thing  to  those  who  can  do  it  easily 
and  well.  The  most  bigoted  critic  of  the  Chinese  is  forced  to 
admit  that  they  have  brought  the  practice  of  politeness  to  a 
pitch  of  perfection  which  is  not  only  unknown  in  Western 
lands,  but,  previous  to  experience,  is  unthought  of  and  almost 
unimaginable. 

The  rules  of  ceremony,  we  are  reminded  in  the  Classics,  are 
three  hundred,  and  the  rules  of  behaviour  three  thousand. 
Under  such  a load  as  this,  it  would  seem  unreasonable  to  hope 
for  the  continuance  of  a race  of  human  beings,  but  we  very 
soon  discover  that  the  Chinese  have  contrived  to  make  their 
ceremonies,  as  they  have  made  their  education,  an  instinct 
rather  than  an  acquirement.  The  genius  of  this  people  has 
made  the  punctilio,  which  in  Occidental  lands  is  relegated  to 


35 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


36 

the  use  of  courts  and  to  the  intercourse  of  diplomatic  life,  a 
part  of  the  routine  of  daily  contact  with  others.  We  do  not 
mean  that  in  their  everyday  life  the  Chinese  are  bound  by 
such  an  intricate  and  complex  mass  of  rules  as  we  have  men- 
tioned, but  that  the  code,  like  a set  of  holiday  clothes,  is  always 
to  be  put  on  when  the  occasion  for  it  arises,  which  happens  at 
certain  junctures  the  occurrence  of  which  the  Chinese  recog- 
nise by  an  unerring  instinct.  On  such  occasions,  not  to  know 
w'hat  to  do  would  be  for  a Chinese  as  ridiculous  as  for  an 
educated  man  in  a Western  land  not  to  be  able  to  tell,  on 
occasion,  how  many  nine  times  nine  are. 

The  difficulty  of  Occidental  appreciation  of  Chinese  polite- 
ness is  that  we  have  in  mind  such  ideas  as  are  embodied  in 
the  definition  which  affirms  that  “ politeness  is  real  kindness 
kindly  expressed.”  So  it  may  be  in  the  view  of  a civilisation 
which  has  learned  to  regard  the  welfare  of  one  as  (theoreti- 
cally) the  welfare  of  all,  but  in  China  politeness  is  nothing  of 
this  sort.  It  is  a ritual  of  technicalities  which,  like  all  techni- 
calities, are  important,  not  as  the  indices  of  a state  of  mind  or 
of  heart,  but  as  individual  parts  of  a complex  whole.  The 
entire  theory  and  practice  of  the  use  of  honorific  terms,  so 
bewildering,  not  to  say  maddening,  to  the  Occidental,  is  sim- 
ply that  these  expressions  help  to  keep  in  view  those  fixed  re- 
lations of  graduated  superiority  which  are  regarded  as  essen- 
tial to  the  conservation  of  society.  They  also  serve  as  lubri- 
cating fluids  to  smooth  human  intercourse.  Each  antecedent 
has  its  consequent,  and  each  consequent  its  antecedent,  and 
when  both  antecedent  and  consequent  are  in  the  proper  place, 
everything  goes  on  well.  It  is  like  a game  of  chess  in  which 
the  first  player  observes,  " I move  my  insignificant  King’s 
pawn  two  squares.”  To  which  his  companion  responds,  “ I 
move  my  humble  King’s  pawn  in  the  same  manner.”  His 
antagonist  then  announces,  “ I attack  your  honourable  King’s 
pawn  with  my  contemptible  King’s  knight,  to  his  King’s 


POLITENESS 


37 


bishop’s  mean  third,”  and  so  on  through  the  game.  The 
game  is  not  affected  by  the  employment  of  the  adjectives,  but 
just  as  the  chess-player  who  should  be  unable  to  announce  his 
next  move  would  make  himself  ridiculous  by  attempting  what 
he  does  not  understand,  so  the  Chinese  who  should  be  igno- 
rant of  the  proper  ceremonial  reply  to  any  given  move  is  the 
laughing-stock  of  every  one,  because  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese 
the  adjectives  are  the  game  itself,  and  not  to  know  them  is 
to  know  nothing. 

At  the  same  time,  the  rigidity  of  Chinese  etiquette  varies 
directly  as  the  distance  from  the  centres  at  which  it  is  most 
essential,  and  when  one  gets  among  rustics,  though  there  is 
the  same  appreciation  of  its  necessity,  there  is  by  no  means 
the  familiarity  with  the  detailed  requirements  which  is  found 
in  an  urban  population. 

But  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  admitted  that  there  are 
very  few  Chinese  who  do  not  know  the  proper  thing  to  be 
done  at  a given  time,  incomparably  better  than  the  most  culti- 
vated foreigner,  who,  as  compared  with  them,  is  a mere  infant 
in  arms ; generally,  unless  he  has  had  a long  preliminary  ex- 
perience, filled  with  secret  terror  lest  he  should  make  a wrong 
move,  and  thus  betray  the  superficial  nature  of  his  knowledge. 
It  is  this  evident  and  self-confessed  incapacity  to  comply  with 
the  very  alphabet  of  Chinese  ceremonial  politeness  which 
makes  the  educated  classes  of  China  look  with  such  undis- 
guised (and  not  unnatural)  contempt  on  the  “ Barbarians,” 
who  do  not  understand  “ the  round  and  the  square,”  and  who, 
even  when  they  have  been  made  acquainted  with  the  beauties 
of  the  usages  of  polite  life,  manifest  such  disdainful  indiffer- 
ence, as  well  as  such  invincible  ignorance. 

Politeness  has  been  likened  to  an  air-cushion.  There  is 
nothing  in  it,  but  it  eases  the  jolts  wonderfully.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  only  fair  to  add  that  the  politeness  which  the  Chinese 
exercises  to  the  foreigner  (as  well  as  much  of  that  which  he 


3» 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


displays  to  his  own  people)  is  oftener  prompted  by  a desire 
to  show  that  he  really  understands  the  proper  moves  to  be 
made,  than  by  a wish  to  do  that  which  will  be  agreeable  to  his 
guest.  He  insists  on  making  a fire  which  you  do  not  want, 
in  order  to  steep  for  you  a cup  of  tea  which  you  detest,  and 
in  so  doing  fills  your  eyes  with  smoke,  and  your  throat  with  a 
sensation  of  having  swallowed  a decoction  of  marshmallows ; 
but  the  host  has  at  least  established  the  proposition  that  he 
knows  how  a guest  ought  to  be  treated,  and  if  the  guest  is  not 
pleased,  so  much  the  worse  for  the  guest.  In  the  same  man- 
ner the  rural  host,  who  thinks  it  is  his  duty  to  have  the  humble 
apartment  in  which  you  are  to  be  lodged,  swept  and  (figura- 
tively) garnished,  postpones  this  process  until  you  have  already 
arrived,  and  despite  your  entreaties  to  desist  he  will  not,  though 
he  put  your  eyes  out  by  raising  the  dust  of  ages.  The  Book 
of  Rites  teaches,  perhaps,  that  a room  shall  be  swept,  and 
swept  it  shall  be,  whatever  the  agonies  of  the  traveller  in  the 
process.  The  same  rule  holds  at  feasts,  those  terrors  of  the 
uninitiated  (and  not  seldom  of  the  too  initiated),  where  the 
zealous  host  is  particular  to  pile  on  your  plate  the  things  that 
it  is  good  for  you  to  like,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  you  do  not 
want  them  and  cannot  swallow  a morsel  of  them.  So  much 
the  worse  for  you,  he  seems  to  say,  but  of  one  thing  he  is 
sure,  he  will  not  be  lacking  in  his  part.  No  one  shall  be  able 
to  accuse  him  of  not  having  made  the  proper  moves  at  the 
proper  times.  If  the  foreigner  does  not  know  the  game,  that 
is  his  own  affair,  not  that  of  the  host. 

It  was  upon  this  principle  that  a Chinese  bride,  whose  duty 
it  had  become  to  call  upon  a foreign  lady,  deliberately  turned 
her  back  upon  the  latter,  and  made  her  obeisance  towards  a 
totally  different  quarter,  to  the  amazement  and  annoyance  of 
her  hostess.  Upon  subsequent  inquiry  it  turned  out  that  the 
bride  had  performed  her  prostration  to  the  north  because  that 
is  the  direction  of  the  abode  of  the  Emperor,  no  attention 


POLITENESS 


39 


being  paid  to  the  circumstance  that  the  person  to  whom  the 
bride  was  supposed  to  be  paying  her  respects  was  on  the 
south  side  of  the  room.  If  the  foreign  lady  did  not  know 
enough  to  take  her  place  on  the  proper  side  of  the  room,  the 
bride  did  not  consider  that  any  concern  of  hers ; she,  at  least, 
would  show  that  she  knew  in  what  direction  to  knock  her 
head! 

Chinese  politeness  often  assumes  the  shape  of  a gift.  This, 
as  already  remarked,  gives  the  recipient  “ face.”  There  are 
certain  stereotyped  forms  which  such  offerings  take.  One 
who  has  much  to  do  with  the  Chinese  will  be  always  liable  to 
deposits  of  packages,  neatly  tied  up  in  red  paper,  containing  a 
mass  of  greasy  cakes  which  he  cannot  possibly  eat,  but  which 
the  giver  will  not  take  back,  even  though  he  is  informed  by 
the  unwilling  recipient  (driven  to  extremities)  that  he  shall  be 
obliged  to  give  them  all  to  some  other  Chinese. 

Chinese  politeness  by  no  means  forbids  one  to  “ look  a gift 
horse  in  the  mouth.”  One  is  often  asked  how  much  a present 
cost  him,  and  guests  in  taking  leave  of  a host  or  hostess  con- 
stantly use  the  formula : “ I have  made  you  much  trouble ; I 
have  forced  you  to  spend  a great  deal  of  money  ! ” 

A foreigner  who  had  been  invited  to  a wedding,  at  which 
bread-cakes  are  provided  in  abundance,  observed  that  when 
the  feast  was  well  advanced  a tray  was  produced  containing 
only  two  or  three  bread-calces,  which  were  ostentatiously  of- 
fered as  being  hot  (if  any  preferred  them  so).  They  were  first 
passed  to  the  foreigner  as  the  guest  of  honour,  who  merely 
declined  them  with  thanks.  For  some  unexplained  reason, 
this  seemed  to  throw  a kind  of  gloom  over  the  proceedings, 
and  the  tray  was  withdrawn  without  being  passed  to  any  one 
else.  It  is  the  custom  for  each  guest  at  a wedding  to  con- 
tribute a fixed  sum  towards  the  expenses  of  the  occasion.  It 
was  the  usage  of  this  locality  to  collect  these  contributions 
while  the  guests  were  still  at  the  table,  but  as  it  would  not 


40 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


conform  to  Chinese  ideas  of  propriety  to  ask  a guest  for  his 
offering,  it  was  done  under  the  guise  of  passing  him  hot  bis- 
cuit. Every  one  understood  this  polite  fiction  except  the  ill- 
informed  foreigner,  whose  refusal  rendered  it  improper  for  any 
one  else  to  make  his  contribution  at  that  time.  At  a subse- 
quent wedding  to  which  he  was  invited  in  the  same  family, 
this  foreigner  was  interested  in  hearing  the  master  of  cere- 
monies, taught  by  dear  experience,  remark  to  the  guests  with 
more  than  Occidental  directness,  “ This  is  the  place  for  those 
who  have  accounts  to  come  in  and  settle  them ! ” 

After  all  abatements  have  been  made  for  the  tediously 
minute  and  often  irksome  detail  of  trifles  of  which  Chinese 
politeness  takes  account,  for  all  of  which  it  prescribes  regula- 
tions, it  still  remains  true  that  we  have  much  to  learn  from  the 
Chinese  in  the  item  of  social  intercourse.  It  is  quite  possible 
to  retain  our  sincerity  without  retaining  all  our  brusqueness, 
and  the  sturdy  independence  of  the  Occident  would  be  all 
the  better  for  the  admixture  of  a certain  amount  of  Oriental 
suavity. 

There  are,  however,  many  Occidentals  who  could  never  be 
brought  to  look  at  the  matter  in  this  light.  An  acquaintance 
of  the  writer’s  resided  for  so  many  years  in  Paris  that  he  had 
unconsciously  adopted  the  manners  of  that  capital.  When  at 
length  he  returned  to  London,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  removing 
his  hat,  and  making  a courteous  bow  to  every  friend  whom  he 
met.  Upon  one  occasion,  one  of  the  latter  returned  his  salu- 
tations with  the  somewhat  unsympathetic  observation,  “ See 
here,  old  fellow,  none  of  your  French  monkey  tricks  here  / ” 
Happy  the  man  who  is  able  to  combine  all  that  is  best  in  the 
East  and  in  the  West,  and  who  can  walk  securely  along  the 
narrow  and  often  thorny  path  of  the  Golden  Mean. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  TIME. 

IT  is  a maxim  of  the  developed  civilisation  of  our  day,  that 
“time  is  money.”  The  complicated  arrangements  of 
modern  life  are  such  that  a business  man  in  business  hours  is 
able  to  do  an  amount  and  variety  of  business  which,  in  the 
past  century,  would  have  required  the  expenditure  of  time  in- 
definitely greater.  Steam  and  electricity  have  accomplished 
this  change,  and  it  is  a change  for  which  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  was  prepared  beforehand  by  its  constitutional  tendencies. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  habits  of  our  ancestors  when 
they  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  but  to  eat,  drink,  and  fight, 
we  find  it  difficult  to  imagine  a period  when  our  race  was  not 
characterised  by  that  impetuous  energy  which  ever  drives  the 
individuals  of  it  onward  to  do  something  else,  as  soon  as 
another  something  is  finished. 

There  is  a significant  difference  in  the  salutations  of  the 
Chinese  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  The  former  says  to  his 
comrade  whom  he  casually  meets,  “ Have  you  eaten  rice  ? ” 
The  latter  asks,  “ How  do  you  do  ? ” Doing  is  the  normal 
condition  of  the  one,  as  eating  is  the  normal  condition  of  the 
other.  From  that  feeling  which  to  us  has  become  a second 
nature,  that  time  is  money,  and  under  ordinary  circumstances 
is  to  be  improved  to  its  final  second,  the  Chinese,  like  most 
Orientals,  are  singularly  free.  There  are  only  twelve  hours  in 
the  Chinese  day,  and  the  names  of  these  hours  do  not  desig- 
nate simply  the  point  where  one  of  them  gives  place  to  another, 

41 


42 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


but  denote  as  well  all  the  time  covered  by  the  twelfth  part  of 
a day  which  each  of  them  connotes.  In  this  way  the  term 
“ noon,”  which  would  seem  as  definite  as  any,  is  employed  of 
the  entire  period  from  eleven  to  one  o’clock.  “ What  time  is 
it,”  a Chinese  inquired  in  our  hearing,  “ when  it  is  noon  by  the 
moon?  ” Phrased  in  less  ambiguous  language,  the  question 
which  he  intended  to  propound  was  this : “ What  is  the  time 
of  night  when  the  moon  is  at  the  meridian  ? ” 

Similar  uncertainties  pervade  almost  all  the  notes  of  time 
which  occur  in  the  language  of  everyday  life.  “ Sunrise  ” 
and  “ sunset  ” are  as  exact  as  anything  in  Chinese  can  be 
expected  to  be,  though  used  with  much  latitude  (and  much 
longitude  as  well),  but  “midnight,”  like  “noon,”  means  noth- 
ing in  particular,  and  the  ordinary  division  of  the  night  by 
“ watches  ” is  equally  vague,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
one,  which  is  often  associated  with  the  appearance  of  daylight. 
Even  in  the  cities  the  “ watches  ” are  of  more  or  less  uncertain 
duration.  Of  the  portable  time-pieces  which  we  designate  by 
this  name,  the  Chinese  as  a people  know  nothing,  and  few  of 
those  who  really  own  watches  govern  their  movements  by 
them,  even  if  they  have  the  watches  cleaned  once  every  few 
years  and  ordinarily  keep  them  running,  which  is  not  often 
the  case.  The  common  people  are  quite  content  to  tell  their 
time  by  the  altitude  of  the  sun,  which  is  variously  described 
as  one,  two,  or  more  “ flagstaffs,”  or  if  the  day  is  cloudy  a 
general  result  can  be  arrived  at  by  observing  the  contraction 
and  dilatation  of  the  pupil  of  a cat’s  eye,  and  such  a result  is 
quite  accurate  enough  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

The  Chinese  use  of  time  corresponds  to  the  exactness  of 
their  measures  of  its  flight.  According  to  the  distinction 
described  by  Sydney  Smith,  the  world  is  divided  into  two 
classes  of  persons,  the  antediluvians  and  the  post-diluvians. 
Among  the  latter  the  discovery  has  been  made  that  the  age 
of  man  no  longer  runs  into  the  centuries  which  verge  on  a 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  TIME 


43 


millennium,  and  accordingly  they  study  compression,  and 
adaptation  to  their  environment.  The  antediluvians,  on  the 
contrary,  cannot  be  made  to  realise  that  the  days  of  Methu- 
saleh  have  gone  by,  and  they  continue  to  act  as  if  life  were 
still  laid  out  on  the  patriarchal  plan. 

Among  these  “ antediluvians  ” the  Chinese  are  to  be  reck- 
oned. A good  Chinese  story-teller,  such  as  are  employed  in 
the  tea-shops  to  attract  and  retain  customers,  reminds  one  of 
Tennyson’s  “ Brook.”  Men  may  come  and  men  may  go,  but 
he  goes  on  “forever  ever.”  The  same  is  true  of  theatrical 
exhibitions,  which  sometimes  last  for  days,  though  they  fade 
into  insignificance  in  comparison  with  those  of  Siam,  where 
we  are  assured  by  those  who  claim  to  have  survived  one  of 
them  that  they  are  known  to  hold  for  two  months  together! 
The  feats  of  Chinese  jugglers  when  well  done  are  exceedingly 
clever  and  very  amusing,  but  they  have  one  fatal  defect — they 
are  so  long  drawn  out  by  the  prolix  and  inane  conversation  of 
the  participants,  that  long  before  the  jugglers  finish,  the  for- 
eign spectator  will  have  regretted  that  he  ever  weakly  con- 
sented to  patronise  them.  Not  less  formidable,  but  rather  far 
more  so,  are  the  interminable  Chinese  feasts,  with  their  almost 
incredible  number  and  variety  of  courses,  the  terror  and  de- 
spair of  all  foreigners  who  have  experienced  them,  although 
to  the  Chinese  these  entertainments  seem  but  too  short.  One 
of  their  most  pensive  sayings  observes  that  “ there  is  no  feast 
in  the  world  which  must  not  break  up  at  last,”  though  to  the 
unhappy  barbarian  lured  into  one  of  these  traps  this  hopeful 
generality  is  often  lost  in  despair  of  the  particular. 

From  his  earliest  years,  the  Chinese  is  thoroughly  accus- 
tomed to  doing  everything  on  the  antediluvian  plan.  When 
he  goes  to  school,  he  generally  goes  for  the  day,  extending  to 
all  the  period  from  sunrise  to  dark,  with  one  or  two  inter- 
missions for  food.  Of  any  other  system,  neither  pupils  nor 
master  have  ever  heard.  The  examinations  for  degrees  are 


‘f 4 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


protracted  through  several  days  and  nights,  with  all  grades 
of  severity,  and  while  most  of  the  candidates  experience  much 
inconvenience  from  such  an  irrational  course,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  convince  any  of  them  of  its  inherent  absurdity  as  a 
test  of  intellectual  attainments. 

The  products  of  the  minds  of  those  thus  educated  are  redo- 
lent of  the  processes  through  which  they  have  passed.  The 
Chinese  language  itself  is  essentially  antediluvian,  and  to  over- 
take it  requires  the  lifetime  of  a Methusaleh.  It  is  as  just  to 
say  of  the  ancient  Chinese  as  of  the  ancient  Romans,  that  if 
they  had  been  obliged  to  learn  their  own  language  they  would 
never  have  said  or  written  anything  worth  setting  down! 
Chinese  histories  are  antediluvian,  not  merely  in  their  attempts 
to  go  back  to  the  ragged  edge  of  zero  for  a point  of  depart- 
ure, but  in  the  interminable  length  of  the  sluggish  and  turbid 
current  which  bears  on  its  bosom  not  only  the  mighty  vegeta- 
tion of  past  ages,  but  wood,  hay,  and  stubble  past  all  reckon- 
ing. None  but  a relatively  timeless  race  could  either  compose 
or  read  such  histories ; none  but  the  Chinese  memory  could 
store  them  away  in  its  capacious  “abdomen.” 

Chinese  disregard  of  time  is  manifested  in  their  industry, 
the  quality  of  intension  in  which  we  have  already  remarked  to 
be  very  different  from  that  in  the  work  of  Anglo-Saxons. 

How  many  of  those  who  have  had  the  pleasure  of  building 
a house  in  China,  with  Chinese  contractors  and  workmen, 
thirst  to  do  it  again?  The  men  come  late  and  go  early. 
They  are  perpetually  stopping  to  drink  tea.  They  make  long 
journeys  to  a distant  lime-pit  carrying  a few  quarts  of  liquid 
mud  in  a cloth  bag,  when  by  using  a wheelbarrow  one  man 
could  do  the  work  of  three ; but  this  result  is  by  no  means  the 
one  aimed  at.  If  there  is  a slight  rain  all  work  is  suspended. 
There  is  generally  abundant  motion  with  but  little  progress, 
so  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  perceive  what  it  is  which  repre- 
sents the  day’s  “labour”  of  a gang  of  men.  AVe  have  known 


Carpenters  Sawing  Large  Timber. 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  TIME 


45 


a foreigner,  dissatisfied  with  the  slow  progress  of  his  carpen- 
ters in  lathing,  accomplish  while  they  were  eating  their  dinner 
as  much  work  as  all  four  of  them  had  done  in  half  a day. 

The  mere  task  of  keeping  their  tools  in  repair  is  for  Chinese 
workmen  a serious  matter  in  expenditure  of  time.  If  the  tools 
belong  to  the  foreigner,  however,  there  is  no  embarrassment 
on  this  score.  They  are  broken  mysteriously,  and  yet  no  one 
has  touched  them.  Non  est  inventus  is  the  appropriate  motto 
for  them  all.  Poles  and  small  rafters  are  pitched  over  the 
wall,  and  all  the  neighbourhood  loins  appear  to  be  girded  with 
the  rope  which  was  purchased  for  supporting  the  staging. 
During  the  entire  progress  of  the  work,  each  day  is  a crisis. 
All  previous  experience  goes  for  nothing.  The  sand,  the  lime, 
the  earth  of  this  place  will  not  do  for  any  of  the  uses  for 
which  sand,  lime,  and  earth  are  in  general  supposed  to  be 
adapted.  The  foreigner  is  helpless.  He  is  aptly  represented 
by  Gulliver  held  down  by  threads,  which,  taken  together, 
are  too  much  for  him.  Permanently  have  we  enshrined  in 
our  memory  a Cantonese  contractor,  whose  promises,  like  his 
money,  vanished  in  smoke,  for  he  was  unfortunately  a victim 
of  the  opium  pipe.  At  last,  forbearance  having  ceased  to  be  a 
virtue,  he  was  confronted  with  a formidable  bill  of  particulars 
of  the  things  wherein  he  had  come  short.  “You  were  told  the 
size  of  the  glass.  You  measured  the  windows  three  several 
times.  Every  one  of  those  you  have  made  is  wrong,  and  they 
are  useless.  Not  one  of  your  doors  is  properly  put  together. 
There  is  not  an  ounce  of  glue  about  them.  The  flooring- 
boards  are  short  in  length,  short  in  number,  full  of  knot-holes, 
and  wholly  unseasoned.”  After  the  speaker  had  proceeded  in 
this  way  for  some  time,  the  mild-mannered  Cantonese  gazed 
at  him  sadly,  and  when  he  brought  himself  to  speak  he  re- 
marked, in  a tone  of  gentle  remonstrance:  “Don’t  say  dat! 
Don’t  say  dat!  No  gentleman  talk  like  dat ! ” 

To  the  Chinese  the  chronic  impatience  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 


46 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


is  not  only  unaccountable,  but  quite  unreasonable.  It  has 
been  wisely  suggested  that  they  consider  this  trait  in  our 
character  as  objectionable  as  we  do  their  lack  of  sincerity. 

In  any  case,  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  celerity  and 
promptness  is  difficult  to  cultivate  in  a Chinese.  We  have 
known  a bag  full  of  foreign  mail  detained  for  some  days 
between  two  cities  twelve  miles  apart,  because  the  carrier’s 
donkey  was  ailing  and  needed  rest!  The  administration  of 
the  Chinese  telegraph  system  is  frequently  a mere  travesty  of 
what  it  might  be  and  ought  to  be. 

But  in  no  circumstances  is  Chinese  indifference  to  the  lapse 
of  time  more  annoying  to  a foreigner  than  when  the  occasion 
is  a mere  social  call.  Such  calls  in  Western  lands  are  recog- 
nised as  having  certain  limits,  beyond  which  they  must  not  be 
protracted.  In  China,  however,  there  are  no  limits.  As  long 
as  the  host  does  not  offer  his  guest  accommodations  for  the 
night,  the  guest  must  keep  on  talking,  though  he  be  expiring 
with  fatigue.  In  calling  on  foreigners  the  Chinese  can  by  no 
possibility  realise  that  there  is  an  element  of  time,  which  is 
precious.  They  will  sit  by  the  hour  together,  offering  few  or 
no  observations  of  their  own,  and  by  no  means  offering  to 
depart.  The  excellent  pastor  who  had  for  his  motto  the  say- 
ing, “ The  man  who  wants  to  see  me  is  the  man  I want  to 
see,”  would  have  modified  this  dictum  materially  had  he  lived 
for  any  length  of  time  in  China.  After  a certain  experience 
of  this  sort,  he  would  not  improbably  have  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  another  busy  clergyman,  who  hung  conspicuously  in 
his  study  the  scriptural  motto,  “The  Lord  bless  thy  goings 
out!"  The  mere  enunciation  of  his  business  often  seems  to 
cost  a Chinese  a mental  wrench  of  a violent  character.  For 
a long  time  he  says  nothing,  and  he  can  endure  this  for  a 
period  of  time  sufficient  to  wear  out  the  patience  of  ten  Euro- 
peans. Then,  when  he  begins  to  speak,  he  realises  the  truth 
of  the  adage  which  declares  that  “it  is  easy  to  go  on  the 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  TIME 


47 


mountains  to  fight  tigers,  but  to  open  your  mouth  and  out 
with  a thing — this  is  hard ! ” Happy  is  the  foreigner  situated 
like  the  late  lamented  Dr.  Mackenzie,  who,  finding  that  his 
incessant  relays  of  Chinese  guests,  the  friends  “who  come  but 
never  go,”  were  squandering  the  time  which  belonged  to  his 
hospital  work,  was  wont  to  say  to  them,  “ Sit  down  and  make 
yourselves  at  home ; I have  urgent  business,  and  must  be  ex- 
cused.” And  yet  more  happy  would  he  be  if  he  were  able  to 
imitate  the  naive  terseness  of  a student  of  Chinese  who,  hav- 
ing learned  a few  phrases,  desired  to  experiment  with  them  on 
the  teacher,  and  who  accordingly  filled  him  with  stupefaction 
by  remarking  at  the  end  of  a lesson,  “ Open  the  door!  Go!  ” 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THF.  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY. 

THE  first  impression  which  a stranger  receives  of  the  Chi- 
nese is  that  of  uniformity.  Their  physiognomy  appears 
to  be  all  of  one  type,  they  all  seem  to  be  clad  in  one  perpetual 
blue,  the  “ hinges  ” of  the  national  eye  do  not  look  as  if  they 
were  “put  on  straight,”  and  the  resemblance  between  one 
Chinese  cue  and  another  is  the  likeness  between  a pair  of 
peas  from  the  same  pod.  But  in  a very  brief  experience  the 
most  unobservant  traveller  learns  that,  whatever  else  may  be 
predicated  of  the  Chinese,  a dead  level  of  uniformity  cannot 
be  safely  assumed.  The  speech  of  any  two  districts,  no  matter 
how  contiguous,  varies  in  some  interesting  and  perhaps  unac- 
countable ways.  Divergences  of  this  sort  accumulate  until 
they  are  held  to  be  tantamount  to  a new  " dialect,”  and  there 
are  not  wanting  those  who  will  gravely  assure  us  that  in  China 
there  are  a great  number  of  different  “ languages  ” spoken, 
albeit  the  written  character  is  the  same.  The  same  variations, 
as  we  are  often  reminded,  obtain  in  regard  to  customs,  which, 
according  to  a saying  current  among  the  Chinese,  do  not  run 
uniform  for  ten  li  together,  a fact  of  which  it  is  impossible  not 
to  witness  singular  instances  at  every  turn.  A like  diversity  is 
found  to  prevail  in  those  standards  of  quantity  upon  the  ab- 
solute invariability  of  which  so  much  of  the  comfort  of  life  in 
Western  lands  is  found  to  depend. 

The  existence  of  a double  standard  of  any  kind,  which  is 

48 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY 


49 


often  so  keen  an  annoyance  to  an  Occidental,  is  an  equally 
keen  joy  to  the  Chinese.  Two  kinds  of  cash,  two  kinds  of 
weights,  two  kinds  of  measures,  these  seem  to  him  natural  and 
normal,  and  by  no  means  open  to  objection.  A man  who 
made  meat  dumplings  for  sale  was  asked  how  many  of  these 
dumplings  were  made  in  a day ; to  which  he  replied  that  they 
used  about  “one  hundred  [ Chinese]  pounds  of  flour,”  the  un- 
known relation  between  this  amount  of  flour  and  the  number 
of  resultant  dumplings  being  judiciously  left  to  the  inquirer  to 
conjecture  for  himself.  In  like  manner,  a farmer  who  is  asked 
the  weight  of  one  of  his  oxen  gives  a figure  which  seems  much 
too  low,  until  he  explains  that  he  has  omitted  to  estimate  the 
bones!  A servant  who  was  asked  his  height  mentioned  a 
measure  which  was  ridiculously  inadequate  to  cover  his  length, 
and  upon  being  questioned  admitted  that  he  had  left  out  of 
account  all  above  his  shoulders!  He  had  once  been  a soldier, 
where  the  height  of  the  men’s  clavicle  is  important  in  assign- 
ing the  carrying  of  burdens.  And  since  a Chinese  soldier  is 
to  all  practical  purposes  complete  without  his  head,  this  was 
omitted.  Of  a different  sort  was  the  measurement  of  a rustic 
who  affirmed  that  he  lived  “ ninety  li  from  the  city,”  but  upon 
cross-examination  he  consented  to  an  abatement,  as  this  was 
reckoning  both  to  the  city  and  back,  the  real  distance  being, 
as  he  admitted,  only  “ forty-five  li  one  way  ! ” 

The  most  conspicuous  instance  of  this  variability  in  China 
is  seen  in  the  method  of  reckoning  the  brass  cash,  which  con- 
stitute the  only  currency  of  the  Empire.  The  system  is  every- 
where a decimal  one,  which  is  the  easiest  of  all  systems  to  be 
reckoned,  but  no  one  is  ever  sure,  until  he  has  made  particular 
inquiries,  what  number  of  pieces  of  brass  cash  are  expected  in 
any  particular  place  to  pass  for  a hundred.  He  will  not  need 
to  extend  his  travels  over  a very  large  part  of  the  eighteen 
provinces  to  find  that  this  number  varies,  and  varies  with  a 
lawlessness  that  nothing  can  explain,  from  the  full  hundred 


5° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


which  is  the  theoretical  “ string,”  to  99,  98,  96,  83  (as  in  the 
capital  of  Shansi),  down  to  33,  as  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
province  of  Chihli,  and  possibly  to  a still  lower  number  else- 
where. The  same  is  true,  but  in  a more  aggravated  degree, 
of  the  weight  by  which  silver  is  sold.  No  two  places  have 
the  same  “ ounce,”  unless  by  accident,  and  each  place  has  a 
great  variety  of  different  ounces,  to  the  extreme  bewilderment 
of  the  stranger,  the  certain  loss  of  all  except  those  who  deal 
in  silver,  and  the  endless  vexation  of  all  honest  persons,  of 
whom  there  are  many,  even  in  China.  The  motive  for  the 
perpetuation  of  this  monetary  chaos  is  obvious,  but  we  are  at 
present  concerned  only  with  the  fact  of  its  existence. 

The  same  holds  true  universally  of  measures  of  all  sorts. 
The  bushel  of  one  place  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  any  other, 
and  the  advantage  which  is  constantly  taken  of  this  fact  in 
the  exactions  connected  with  the  grain  tax  would  easily  cause 
political  disturbances  among  a less  peaceable  people  than  the 
Chinese.  So  far  is  it  from  being  true  that  “ a pint  is  a pound 
the  world  around,”  in  China  a “ pint  ” is  not  a pint,  nor  is  a 
“pound”  a pound.  Not  only  does  the  theoretical  basis  of 
each  vary,  but  it  is  a very  common  practice  (as  in  the  salt 
monopoly,  for  example)  to  fix  some  purely  arbitrary  standard, 
such  as  twelve  ounces,  and  call  that  a pound  (catty).  The 
purchaser  pays  for  sixteen  ounces  and  receives  but  twelve, 
but  then  it  is  openly  done  and  is  done  by  all  dealers  within 
the  same  range,  so  that  there  is  no  fraud,  and  if  the  people 
think  of  it  at  all,  it  is  only  as  an  “ old-time  custom  ” of  the 
salt  trade.  A similar  uncertainty  prevails  in  the  measurement 
of  land.  In  some  districts  the  “ acre  ” is  half  as  large  again 
as  in  others,  and  those  who  happen  to  live  on  the  boundary 
are  obliged  to  keep  a double  set  of  measuring  apparatus,  one 
for  each  kind  of  “ acre.” 

It  is  never  safe  to  repeat  any  statement  (as  travellers  in 
China  are  constantly  led  to  do)  in  regard  to  the  price  of  each 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY 


51 


“ catty  ” of  grain  or  cotton,  until  one  has  first  informed  him- 
self what  kind  of  “ catty  ” they  have  at  that  point.  The  same 
holds  as  to  the  amount  of  any  crop  yielded  per  “ acre,”  statis- 
tics of  which  are  not  infrequently  presented  in  ignorance  of 
the  vital  fact  that  “ acre  ” is  not  a fixed  term.  That  a like 
state  of  things  prevails  as  to  the  terms  employed  to  measure 
distance,  every  traveller  in  China  is  ready  to  testify.  It  is 
always  necessary  in  land  travel  to  ascertain,  when  the  distance 
is  given  in  “ miles  ” {li),  whether  the  “ miles  ” are  “ large  ” or 
not!  That  there  is  some  basis  for  estimates  of  distances  we 
do  not  deny,  but  what  we  do  deny  is  that  these  estimates  or 
measurements  are  either  accurate  or  uniform.  It  is,  so  far  as 
we  know,  a universal  experience  that  the  moment  one  leaves 
a great  imperial  highway  the  “ miles  ” become  “ long.”  If  1 20 
li  constitute  a fair  day’s  journey  on  the  main  road,  then  on 
country  roads  it  will  take  fully  as  long  to  go  1 00  li,  and  in  the 
mountains  the  whole  day  will  be  spent  in  getting  over  80  li. 
Besides  this,  the  method  of  reckoning  is  frequently  based,  not 
on  absolute  distance,  even  in  a Chinese  sense,  but  on  the  rela- 
tive difficulty  of  getting  over  the  ground.  Thus  it  will  be 
“ninety  li  ” to  the  top  of  a mountain  the  summit  of  which 
would  not  actually  measure  half  that  distance  from  the  base, 
and  this  number  will  be  stoutly  held  to,  on  the  ground  that  it 
is  as  much  trouble  to  go  this  “ninety  li ” as  it  would  be  to  do 
that  distance  on  level  ground.  Another  somewhat  peculiar 
fact  emerges  in  regard  to  linear  measurements,  namely,  that 
the  distance  from  A to  B is  not  necessarily  the  same  as  the 
distance  from  B to  A!  It  is  vain  to  cite  Euclidian  postulates 
that  “ quantities  which  are  equal  to  the  same  quantity  are 
equal  to  each  other.”  In  China  this  statement  requires  to  be 
modified  by  the  insertion  of  a negative.  We  could  name  a 
section  of  one  of  the  most  important  highways  in  China,  which 
from  north  to  south  is  183  li  in  length,  while  from  south  to 
north  it  is  190  li,  and  singularly  enough,  this  holds  true  no 


5* 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


matter  how  often  you  travel  it  or  how  carefully  the  tally  is 
kept ! * 

Akin  to  this  is  another  intellectual  phenomenon,  to  wit,  that 
in  China  it  is  not  true  that  the  “ whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
all  its  parts.”  This  is  especially  the  case  in  river  travel.  On 
inquiry  you  ascertain  that  it  is  “forty  li ” to  a point  ahead. 
Upon  more  careful  analysis,  this  “ forty  ” turns  out  to  be  com- 
posed of  two  “ eighteens,”  and  you  are  struck  dumb  with  the 
statement  that  “ four  nines  are  forty,  are  they  not  ? ” In  the 

* Since  this  was  written,  we  have  met  in  Mr.  Baber’s  “ Travels  in  West- 
ern China  ” with  a confirmation  of  the  view  here  taken.  “ We  heard,  for 
instance,  with  incredulous  ears,  that  the  distance  between  two  places 
depended  upon  which  end  one  started  from ; and  all  the  informants, 
separately  questioned,  would  give  the  same  differential  estimate.  Thus 
from  A to  B would  be  unanimously  called  one  mile,  while  from  B to  A 
would,  with  equal  unanimity,  be  set  down  as  three.  An  explanation 
of  this  offered  by  an  intelligent  native  was  this : Carriage  is  paid  on  a 
basis  of  so  many  cash  per  mile,  it  is  evident  that  a coolie  ought  to  be  paid 
at  a higher  rate  if  the  road  is  uphill.  Now  it  would  be  very  troublesome 
to  adjust  a scale  of  wages  rising  with  the  gradients  of  the  road.  It 
is  much  more  convenient  for  all  parties  to  assume  that  the  road  in  diffi- 
cult or  precipitous  places  is  longer.  This  is  what  has  been  done,  and 
these  conventional  distances  are  now  all  that  the  traveller  will  succeed  in 
ascertaining.  ‘But,’  I protested,  ‘on  the  same  principle,  wet  weather 
must  elongate  the  road,  and  it  must  be  farther  by  night  than  by  day.’ 
* Very  'rue,  but  a little  extra  payment  adjusts  that.’  This  system  may  be 
convenient  for  the  natives,  but  the  traveller  finds  it  a continual  annoy- 
ance. The  scale  of  distances  is  something  like  this : On  level  ground, 
one  statute  mile  is  called  two  li  ; on  ordinary  hill  roads,  not  very  steep, 
one  mile  is  called  five  li ; on  very  steep  roads,  one  mile  is  called  fifteen 
li.  The  natives  of  Yunnan,  being  good  mountaineers,  have  a tendency 
to  underrate  the  distance  on  level  ground,  but  there  is  so  little  of  it 
in  their  country,  that  the  future  traveller  need  scarcely  trouble  himself 
with  the  consideration.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  assume  five  local  li,  except 
in  very  steep  places,  as  being  one  mile.” 

In  Mr.  Little’s  “ Through  the  Yang-tse  Gorges,”  he  mentions  a stage 
which  down  the  river  was  called  ninety  li,  while  up-stream  it  was  120  li. 
He  estimates  3.62  li  to  a statute  mile,  or  250  to  a degree  of  latitude. 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY 


53 


same  manner,  “ three  eighteens  ” make  “ sixty,”  and  so  on 
generally.  We  have  heard  of  a case  in  which  an  imperial 
courier  failed  to  make  a certain  distance  in  the  limits  of  time 
allowed  by  rule,  and  it  was  set  up  in  his  defence  that  the 
“sixty  It”  were  “large.”  As  this  was  a fair  plea,  the  magis- 
trate ordered  the  distance  measured,  when  it  was  found  that 
it  was  in  reality  “ eighty-three  li,”  and  it  has  continued  to  be 
so  reckoned  ever  since. 

Several  villages  scattered  about  at  distances  from  a city 
varying  from  one  li  to  six,  may  each  be  called  “ The  Three- 
Li  Village.”  One  often  notices  that  a distance  which  would 
otherwise  be  reckoned  as  about  a li,  if  there  are  houses  on 
each  side  of  the  road,  is  called  five  li,  and  every  person  in  that 
hamlet  will  gravely  assure  us  that  such  is  the  real  length  of  the 
street. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  cannot  be  a matter  of  sur- 
prise to  find  that  the  regulation  of  standards  is  a thing  which 
each  individual  undertakes  for  himself.  The  steel-yard  maker 
perambulates  the  street,  and  puts  in  the  little  dots  (called 
“ stars  ”)  according  to  the  preferences  of  each  customer,  who 
will  have  not  less  than  two  sets  of  balances,  one  for  buying 
and  one  for  selling.  A ready-made  balance,  unless  it  might 
be  an  old  one,  is  not  to  be  had,  for  the  whole  scale  of  stand- 
ards is  in  a fluid  condition,  to  be  solidified  only  by  each  suc- 
cessive purchaser. 

The  same  general  truth  is  illustrated  by  the  statements  in 
regard  to  age,  particularity  in  which  is  a national  trait  of  the 
Chinese.  While  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  one’s  age  with  exact- 
ness, by  the  animal  governing  the  year  in  which  he  was  born, 
and  to  which  he  therefore  “ belongs,”  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  hear  the  wildest  approximation  to  exactness.  An 
old  man  is  “seventy  or  eighty  years  of  age,”  when  you  know 
to  a certainty  that  he  was  seventy  only  a year  ago.  The 
fact  is,  that  in  China  a person  becomes  " eighty  ” the  moment 


54 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


he  stops  being  seventy,  and  this  “ general  average  ” must  be 
allowed  for,  if  precision  is  desired.  Even  when  a Chinese  in- 
tends to  be  exact,  it  will  often  be  found  that  he  gives  his  age 
as  it  will  be  after  the  next  New-Year’s  day — the  national  birth- 
day in  China.  The  habit  of  reckoning  by  “ tens  ” is  deep- 
seated,  and  leads  to  much  vagueness.  A few  people  are  “ ten 
or  twenty,”  a “ few  tens,”  or  perhaps  “ ever  so  many  tens,” 
and  a strictly  accurate  enumeration  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  ex- 
periences in  China.  The  same  vagueness  extends  upwards 
to  “ hundreds,”  “ thousands,”  and  “ myriads,”  the  practical 
limit  of  Chinese  counting.  For  greater  accuracy  than  these 
general  expressions  denote,  the  Chinese  do  not  care. 

An  acquaintance  told  the  writer  that  two  men  had  spent 
“ 200  strings  of  cash  ” on  a theatrical  exhibition,  adding  a 
moment  later,  “ It  was  173  strings,  but  that  is  the  same  as  200 
— is  it  not  ? ” 

Upon  their  departure  for  the  home  land,  a gentleman  and 
his  wife  who  had  lived  for  several  years  in  China,  were  pre- 
sented by  their  Chinese  friends  with  two  handsome  scrolls, 
intended  not  for  themselves  but  for  their  aged  mothers — the 
only  surviving  parents — who  happened  to  be  of  exactly  the 
same  age.  One  of  the  inscriptions  referred  to  “ Happiness,  ' 
great  as  the  sea,”  and  to  “ Old  age,  green  as  the  perpetual 
pines,”  with  an  allusion  in  smaller  characters  at  the  side  to  the 
fact  that  the  recipient  had  attained  “ seven  decades  of  felicity.” 
The  other  scroll  contained  flowery  language  of  a similar  char- 
acter, but  the  small  characters  by  the  side  complimented  the 
lady  on  having  enjoyed  “ six  decades  of  glory.”  After  duly 
admiring  the  scrolls,  one  of  the  persons  whose  mother  was 
thus  honoured,  ventured  to  inquire  of  the  principal  actor  in 
the  presentation,  why,  considering  the  known  parity  of  ages 
of  the  two  mothers,  one  was  assigned  seventy  years,  and  the 
other  only  sixty.  The  thoroughly  characteristic  reply  was 
given,  that  to  indite  upon  each  of  two  such  scrolls  the  identi- 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY 


55 


cal  legend,  “seven  decades,”  would  look  as  if  the  writers  were 
entirely  destitute  of  originality  ! 

Chinese  social  solidarity  is  often  fatal  to  what  we  mean  by 
accuracy.  A man  who  wished  advice  in  a lawsuit  told  the 
writer  that  he  himself  “ lived  ” in  a particular  village,  though 
it  was  obvious  from  his  narrative  that  his  abode  was  in  the 
suburbs  of  a city.  Upon  inquiry,  he  admitted  that  he  did 
not  tiow  live  in  the  village,  and  further  investigation  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  removal  took  place  nineteen  generations  ago  ! 
“ But  do  you  not  almost  consider  yourself  a resident  of  the 
city  now  ? ” he  was  asked.  “ Yes,”  he  replied  simply,  “ we  do 
live  there  now,  but  the  old  root  is  in  that  village  ! ” 

Another  individual  called  the  writer’s  attention  to  an  ancient 
temple  in  his  own  native  village,  and  remarked  proudly,  “/ 
built  that  temple.”  Upon  pursuing  the  subject,  it  appeared 
that  the  edifice  dated  from  a reign  in  the  Ming  Dynasty,  more 
than  three  hundred  years  ago,  when  “ I ” only  existed  in  the 
potential  mood. 

One  of  the  initial  stumbling-blocks  of  the  student  of  Chi- 
nese is  to  find  a satisfactory  expression  for  identity,  as  distin- 
guished from  resemblance.  The  whole  Chinese  system  of 
thinking  is  based  o.i  a line  of  assumptions  different  from  those 
to  which  we  are  accustomed,  and  they  can  ill  comprehend 
the  mania  which  seems  to  possess  the  Occidental  to  ascertain 
everything  with  unerring  exactness.  The  Chinese  does  not 
know  how  many  families  there  are  in  his  native  village,  and  he 
does  not  wish  to  know.  What  any  human  being  can  want  to 
know  this  number  for  is  to  him  an  insoluble  riddle.  It  is  “ a 
few  hundreds,”  “ several  hundreds,”  or  “ not  a few,”  but  a fixed 
and  definite  number  it  never  was  and  never  will  be. 

The  same  lack  of  precision  which  characterises  the  Chinese 
use  of  numbers,  is  equally  conspicuous  in  their  employment  of 
written  and  even  of  printed  characters.  It  is  not  easy  to  pro- 
cure a cheap  copy  of  any  Chinese  book  which  does  not  abound 


56 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


in  false  characters.  Sometimes  the  character  which  is  em- 
ployed is  more  complex  than  the  one  which  should  have  been 
used,  showing  that  the  error  was  not  due  to  a wish  to  econo- 
mise work,  but  it  is  rather  to  be  credited  to  the  fact  that  ordi- 
narily accuracy  is  considered  as  of  no  importance.  A like 
carelessness  of  notation  is  met  with  in  far  greater  abundance 
in  common  letters,  a character  being  often  represented  by  an- 
other of  the  same  sound,  the  mistake  being  due  as  much  to 
illiteracy  as  to  carelessness. 

Indifference  to  precision  is  nowhere  more  flagrantly  mani- 
fested than  in  the  superscription  of  epistles.  An  ordinary 
Chinese  letter  is  addressed  in  bold  characters,  to  “ My  Father 
Great  Man,”  “ Compassionate  Mother  Great  Man,”  “ Ances- 
tral Uncle  Great  Man,”  “Virtuous  Younger  Brother  Great 
Man,”  etc.,  etc.,  generally  with  no  hint  as  to  the  name  of  the 
“ Great  Man  ” addressed. 

It  certainly  appears  singular  that  an  eminently  practical 
people  like  the  Chinese  should  be  so  inexact  in  regard  to  their 
own  personal  names  as  observation  indicates  them  to  be.  It 
is  very  common  to  find  these  names  written  now  with  one 
character  and  again  with  another,  and  either  one,  we  are  in- 
formed, will  answer.  But  this  is  not  so  confusing  as  the  fact 
that  the  same  man  often  has  several  different  names,  his  fam- 
ily name,  his  “ style,”  and,  strange  to  say,  a wholly  different 
one,  used  only  on  registering  for  admission  to  literary  exam- 
inations. It  is  for  this  reason  not  uncommon  for  a foreigner 
to  mistake  one  Chinese  for  two  or  three.  The  names  of  vil- 
lages are  not  less  uncertain,  sometimes  appearing  in  two  or 
even  three  entirely  different  forms,  and  no  one  of  them  is  ad- 
mitted to  be  more  “right”  than  another.  If  one  should  be 
an  acknowledged  corruption  of  another,  they  may  be  employed 
interchangeably,  or  the  correct  name  may  be  used  in  official 
papers  and  the  other  in  ordinary  speech,  or  yet  again,  the 


THE  DISREGARD  OF  ACCURACY 


57 


corruption  may  be  used  as  an  adjective,  forming  with  the 
original  appellation  a compound  title. 

The  Chinese  are  unfortunately  deficient  in  the  education 
which  comes  from  a more  or  less  intimate  aquaintance  with 
chemical  formulae,  where  the  minutest  precision  is  fatally  neces- 
sary. The  first  generation  of  Chinese  chemists  will  probably 
lose  many  of  its  number  as  a result  of  the  process  of  mixing  a 
“few  tens  of  grains”  of  something  with  “several  tens  of  grains” 
of  something  else,  the  consequence  being  an  unanticipated 
earthquake.  The  Chinese  are  as  capable  of  learning  minute 
accuracy  in  all  things  as  any  nation  ever  was — nay,  more  so, 
for  they  are  endowed  with  infinite  patience — but  what  we  have 
to  remark  of  this  people  is  that,  as  at  present  constituted,  they 
are  free  from  the  quality  of  accuracy  and  that  they  do  not 
understand  what  it  is.  If  this  is  a true  statement,  two  infer- 
ences would  seem  to  be  legitimate.  First,  much  allowance 
must  be  made  for  this  trait  in  our  examination  of  Chinese  his- 
torical records.  We  can  readily  deceive  ourselves  by  taking 
Chinese  statements  of  numbers  and  of  quantities  to  be  what 
they  were  never  intended  to  be — exact.  Secondly,  a wide 
margin  must  be  left  for  all  varieties  of  what  is  dignified  with 
the  title  of  a Chinese  “ census.”  The  whole  is  not  greater 
than  its  parts,  Chinese  enumeration  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. When  we  have  well  considered  all  the  bearings  of 
a Chinese  “ census,”  we  shall  be  quite  ready  to  say  of  it,  as 
was  remarked  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  by  a canny 
Scotchman  who  had  a strong  realisation  of  the  “ glorious 
uncertainty  of  the  law,”  that  it  has  “the  last  guess  at  the 
case!  ” 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  TALENT  FOR  MISUNDERSTANDING. 

THIS  remarkable  gift  of  the  Chinese  people  is  first  observed 
when  the  foreigner  knows  enough  of  the  language  to 
employ  it  as  a vehicle  of  thought.  To  his  pained  surprise,  he 
finds  that  he  is  not  understood.  He  therefore  returns  to  his 
studies  with  augmented  diligence,  and  at  the  end  of  a series  of 
years  is  able  to  venture  with  confidence  to  accost  the  general 
public,  or  any  individual  thereof,  on  miscellaneous  topics.  If 
the  person  addressed  is  a total  stranger,  especially  if  he  has 
never  before  met  a foreigner,  the  speaker  will  have  opportu- 
nity for  the  same  pained  surprise  as  when  he  made  his  maiden 
speech  in  this  tongue.  The  auditor  evidently  does  not  under- 
stand. He  as  evidently  does  not  expect  to  understand.  He 
visibly  pays  no  attention  to  what  is  said,  makes  no  effort 
whatever  to  follow  it,  but  simply  interrupts  you  to  observe, 
“When  you  speak,  we  do  not  understand.”  He  has  a smile 
of  superiority,  as  of  one  contemplating  the  struggles  of  a deaf- 
mute  to  utter  articulate  speech,  and  as  if  he  would  say,  “ Who 
supposed  that  you  could  be  understood?  It  may  be  your 
misfortune  and  not  your  fault  that  you  were  not  born  with  a 
Chinese  tongue,  but  you  should  bear  your  disabilities,  and 
not  worry  us  with  them,  for  when  you  speak  we  do  not  under- 
stand you.”  It  is  impossible  to  retain  at  all  times  an  unruffled 
serenity  in  situations  like  this,  and  it  is  natural  to  turn  fiercely 
on  your  adversary,  and  inquire,  “ Do  you  understand  what  I 

58 


THE  TALENT  FOR  MISUNDERSTANDING 


59 


am  saying  at  this  moment  ? ” “ No,”  he  replies,  “ I do  not 

understand  you! ” 

Another  stage  in  the  experience  of  Chinese  powers  of  mis- 
understanding is  reached  when,  although  the  words  are  dis- 
tinctly enough  apprehended,  through  a disregard  of  details  the 
thought  is  obscured  even  if  not  wholly  lost.  The  “ Foreigner 
in  Far  Cathay  ” needs  to  lay  in  a copious  stock  of  phrases 
which  shall  mean,  “ on  this  condition,”  “ conditionally,”  “ with 
this  understanding,”  etc.,  etc.  It  is  true  that  there  do  not 
appear  to  be  any  such  phrases,  nor  any  occasion  for  them  felt 
by  the  Chinese,  but  with  the  foreigner  it  is  different.  The 
same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  notation  of  tenses.  The  Chinese 
do  not  care  for  them,  but  the  foreigner  is  compelled  to  care 
for  them. 

Of  all  subjects  of  human  interest  in  China,  the  one  which 
most  needs  to  be  guarded  against  misunderstanding  is  money. 
If  the  foreigner  is  paying  out  this  commodity  (which  often  ap- 
pears to  be  the  principal  function  of  the  foreigner  as  seen  from 
the  Chinese  standpoint)  a future-perfect  tense  is  “a  military 
necessity.”  “ When  you  shall  have  done  your  work,  you  will 
receive  your  money.”  But  there  is  no  future-perfect  tense  in 
Chinese,  or  tense  of  any  description.  A Chinese  simply  says, 
“ Do  work,  get  money,”  the  last  being  the  principal  idea  which 
dwells  in  his  mind,  the  “ time  relation  ” being  absent.  Hence 
when  he  is  to  do  anything  for  a foreigner  he  wishes  his  money 
at  once,  in  order  that  he  may  “ eat,”  the  presumption  being 
that  if  he  had  not  stumbled  on  the  job  of  this  foreigner  he 
would  never  have  eaten  any  more!  Eternal  vigilance,  we 
must  repeat,  is  the  price  at  which  immunity  from  misunder- 
standings about  money  is  to  be  purchased  in  China.  Who  is 
and  who  is  not  to  receive  it,  at  what  times,  in  what  amounts, 
whether  in  silver  ingots  or  brass  cash,  what  quality  and  weight 
of  the  former,  what  number  of  the  latter  shall  pass  as  a 
“ string  ” — these  and  other  like  points  are  those  in  regard  to 


6o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


which  it  is  morally  impossible  to  have  a too  definite  and  fixed 
understanding.  If  the  matter  be  a contract  in  which  a builder, 
a compradore,  or  a boatman  is  to  do  on  his  part  certain  things 
and  furnish  certain  articles,  no  amount  of  preliminary  precision 
and  exactness  in  explanations  will  come  amiss. 

To  “cut  off  one’s  nose  to  spite  one’s  face”  is  in  China 
a proceeding  too  common  to  attract  the  least  attention.  A 
boatman  or  a carter  who  is  engaged  to  go  wherever  the  for- 
eigner who  hires  his  boat  may  direct,  sometimes  positively 
refuses  to  fulfil  his  contract.  The  inflexible  obstinacy  of  a 
Chinese  carter  on  such  occasions  is  aptly  illustrated  by  the 
behaviour  of  one  of  his  mules,  which,  on  coming  to  a particu- 
larly dusty  place  in  the  road,  lies  down  with  great  deliberation 
to  its  dust-bath.  The  carter  meantime  lashes  the  mule  with 
his  whip  to  the  utmost  limit  of  his  strength,  but  in  vain.  The 
mule  is  as  indifferent  as  if  a fly  were  tickling  it.  In  consider- 
ing the  phenomena  to  which  this  is  analogous,  we  have  been 
frequently  reminded  of  the  caustic  comments  of  De  Quincey, 
in  which,  with  a far  too  sweeping  generalisation,  he  affirms 
that  the  Chinese  race  is  endued  with  “ an  obstinacy  like  that 
of  mules.”  The  Chinese  are  not  obstinate  like  mules,  for  the 
mule  does  not  change  his  mood,  while  the  same  obstreperous 
carter  who  defies  his  employer  in  the  middle  of  his  journey, 
though  expressly  warned  that  his  “ wine-money  ” will  be  wholly 
withheld  should  he  persist,  is  at  the  end  of  the  journey  ready 
to  spend  half  a day  in  pleading  and  in  prostrations  for  the 
favour  which  at  a distance  he  treated  with  contemptuous 
scorn.  That  a traveller  should  have  a written  agreement  with 
his  carters,  boatmen,  etc.,  is  a matter  of  ordinary  prudence. 
No  loophole  for  a possible  misconstruction  must  be  left  open. 

“ Plain  at  first,  afterwards  no  dispute  ” is  the  prudent  apho- 
rism of  the  Chinese.  Yet  the  chances  are  that,  after  exhaust- 
ing one’s  ingenuity  in  preliminary  agreements,  some  occasion 
for  misunderstanding  will  arise.  And  whatever  be  his  care  on 


A Pkkin  Cart, 


THE  TALENT  FOR  MISUNDERSTANDING  61 

this  point,  money  will  probably  make  the  foreigner  in  China 
more  trouble  than  any  other  single  cause.  Whether  the  Chi- 
nese concerned  happen  to  be  educated  scholars  or  ignorant 
coolies,  makes  little  difference.  All  Chinese  are  gifted  with  an 
instinct  for  taking  advantage  of  misunderstandings.  They 
find  them  as  a January  north  wind  finds  a crack  in  a door,  as 
the  water  finds  a leak  in  a ship,  instantly  and  without  apparent 
effort.  The  Anglo-Saxon  race  is  in  some  respects  singularly 
adapted  to  develop  this  Chinese  gift.  As  the  ancient  Persians 
were  taught  principally  the  two  arts  of  drawing  the  long  bow 
and  speaking  the  truth,  so  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  soon  perceived 
by  the  Chinese  to  have  a talent  for  veracity  and  doing  justice 
as  well  towards  enemies  as  towards  friends.  To  the  Chinese 
these  qualities  seem  as  singular  as  the  Jewish  habit  of  suspend- 
ing all  military  operations  every  seventh  day,  no  matter  how 
hard-pressed  they  might  be,  must  have  appeared  to  the  Ro- 
mans under  Titus,  and  the  one  eccentricity  proves  as  useful  to 
the  Chinese  as  the  other  did  to  the  Romans. 

Foreign  intercourse  with  China  for  the  century  preceding 
i860  was  one  long  illustration  of  the  Chinese  talent  for  mis- 
understanding, and  the  succeeding  years  have  by  no  means 
exhausted  that  talent.  The  history  of  foreign  diplomacy  with 
China  is  largely  a history  of  attempted  explanations  of  matters 
which  have  been  deliberately  misunderstood.  But  in  these  or 
in  other  cases,  the  initial  conviction  that  a foreigner  will  do  as 
he  has  promised  is  deeply  rooted  in  the  Chinese  mind,  and 
flourishes  in  spite  of  whatever  isolated  exceptions  to  the  rule 
are  forced  upon  observation.  The  confidence,  too,  that  a for- 
eigner will  act  justly  (also  in  spite  of  some  private  and  many 
national  examples  to  the  contrary)  is  equally  firm.  But  given 
these  two  fixed  points,  the  Chinese  have  a fulcrum  from  which 
they  may  hope  to  move  the  most  obstinate  foreigner.  “You 
said  thus  and  thus.”  “No,  I did  not  say  so.”  “ But  I under- 
stood you  to  say  so.  We  all  understood  you  to  say  so. 


b 2 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Please  excuse  our  stupidity,  and  please  pay  the  money,  as 
you  said  you  would.”  Such  is  the  substance  of  thousands 
of  arguments  between  Chinese  and  foreigners,  and  in  ninety- 
seven  cases  out  of  a hundred  the  foreigner  pays  the  money, 
just  as  the  Chinese  knew  he  would,  in  order  to  seem  strictly 
truthful  as  well  as  strictly  just.  In  the  remaining  three  cases 
some  other  means  must  be  devised  to  accomplish  the  result, 
and  of  these  three  two  will  succeed. 

Examples  of  the  everyday  misunderstanding  on  all  subjects 
will  suggest  themselves  in  shoals  to  the  experienced  reader, 
for  their  name  is  legion.  The  coolie  is  told  to  pull  up  the 
weeds  in  your  yard,  but  to  spare  the  precious  tufts  of  grass 
just  beginning  to  sprout,  and  in  which  you  see  visions  of  a 
longed-for  turf.  The  careless  buffalo  takes  a hoe  and  chops 
lip  every  green  thing  he  meets,  making  a wilderness  and  call- 
ing it  peace.  He  did  not  “ understand  ” you.  The  cook  was 
sent  a long  distance  to  the  only  available  market,  with  instruc- 
tions to  buy  a carp  and  a young  fowl.  He  returns  with  no 
fish,  and  three  tough  geese,  which  were  what  he  thought  you 
ordered.  He  did  not  “ understand  ” you.  The  messenger 
that  was  sent  just  before  the  closing  of  the  mail  with  an  im- 
portant packet  of  letters  to  the  French  Consulate  returns  with 
the  information  that  the  letters  could  not  be  received.  He 
has  taken  them  to  the  Belgian  Consulate,  and  the  mail  has 
closed.  He  did  not  “understand”  you. 

How  easy  it  is  for  the  poor  foreigner  both  to  misunderstand 
and  to  be  misunderstood  is  well  illustrated  in  the  experience 
of  a friend  of  the  writer,  who  visited  a Chinese  bank  with  the 
proprietors  of  which  he  was  on  good  terms,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  which  there  had  recently  been  a destructive  con- 
flagration. The  foreigner  congratulated  the  banker  that  the 
fire  had  not  come  any  nearer  to  his  establishment.  On  this 
the  person  addressed  grew  at  once  embarrassed  and  then 
angry,  exclaiming:  “ What  sort  of  talk  is  this?  This  is  not  a 


THE  TALENT  FOR  MISUNDERSTANDING 


63 


proper  kind  of  talk!”  It  was  not  till  some  time  afterwards 
that  the  discovery  was  made  that  the  point  of  the  offence 
against  good  manners  lay  in  the  implied  hint  that  if  the  fire 
had  come  too  near  it  might  have  burned  the  cash-shop,  which 
would  have  been  most  unlucky,  and  the  very  contemplation  of 
which,  albeit  in  congratulatory  language,  was  therefore  taboo ! 
A foreigner  who  was  spending  a short  time  in  the  capital  met 
a drove  of  camels,  among  which  was  a baby  camel.  Turning 
to  the  driver  of  the  cart,  who  had  been  for  many  years  in  the 
employ  of  foreigners,  he  said : “ When  you  come  back  to  the 
house,  tell  my  little  boy  to  come  out  and  look  at  this  little 
camel,  as  he  has  never  seen  one,  and  it  will  amuse  him  very 
much.”  After  a considerable  lapse  of  time,  during  which,  as 
in  the  last  case,  the  idea  was  undergoing  slow  fermentation, 
the  carter  replied  thoughtfully : “ If  you  should  buy  the  camel, 
you  could  not  raise  it — it  would  be  sure  to  die!  ” 

The  writer  was  once  present  at  a service  in  Chinese,  when 
the  speaker  treated  the  subject  of  the  cure  of  Naaman.  He 
pictured  the  scene  as  the  great  Syrian  general  arrived  at  the 
door  of  Elisha’s  house,  and  represented  the  attendants  striv- 
ing to  gain  admittance  for  their  master.  Struggling  to  make 
this  as  pictorial  as  possible,  the  speaker  cried  out  dramatically, 
on  behalf  of  the  Syrian  servants,  “ Gatekeeper,  open  the  door ; 
the  Syrian  general  has  come!”  To  the  speaker’s  surprise  a 
man  in  the  rear  seat  disappeared  at  this  point  as  if  he  had 
been  shot  out,  and  it  subsequently  appeared  that  this  person 
had  laboured  under  a misunderstanding.  He  was  the  gate- 
keeper of  the  premises,  and  oblivious  of  what  had  gone  before, 
on  hearing  himself  suddenly  accosted  he  had  rushed  out  with 
commendable  promptness  to  let  in  Naaman! 

Not  less  erroneous  were  the  impressions  of  another  auditor 
of  a missionary  in  one  of  the  central  provinces,  who  wished  to 
produce  a profound  impression  upon  his  audience  by  showing 
with  the  stereopticon  a highly  magnified  representation  of  a 


64 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


very  common  parasite.  As  the  gigantic  body  of  this  reptile, 
much  resembling  an  Egyptian  crocodile,  was  thrown  athwart 
the  canvas,  one  of  the  spectators  present  was  heard  to  an- 
nounce in  an  awed  whisper  the  newly  gained  idea,  “ See,  this 
is  the  great  Foreign  Louse!” 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  TALENT  FOR  INDIRECTION. 

ONE  of  the  intellectual  habits  upon  which  we  Anglo- 
Saxons  pride  ourselves  most  is  that  of  going  directly  to 
the  marrow  of  a subject,  and  when  we  have  reached  it  saying 
exactly  what  we  mean.  Considerable  abatements  must  no 
doubt  be  made  in  any  claim  set  up  for  such  a habit,  when  we 
consider  the  usages  of  polite  society  and  those  of  diplomacy, 
yet  it  still  remains  substantially  true  that  the  instinct  of  recti- 
linearity  is  the  governing  one,  albeit  considerably  modified  by 
special  circumstances.  No  very  long  acquaintance  is  required 
with  any  Asiatic  race,  however,  to  satisfy  us  that  their  instincts 
and  ours  are  by  no  means  the  same — in  fact,  that  they  are  at 
opposite  poles.  We  shall  lay  no  stress  upon  the  redundancy 
of  honorific  terms  in  all  Asiatic  languages,  some  of  which  in 
this  respect  are  indefinitely  more  elaborate  than  the  Chinese. 
Neither  do  we  emphasise  the  use  of  circumlocutions,  peri- 
phrases, and  what  may  be  termed  aliases,  to  express  ideas 
which  are  perfectly  simple,  but  which  no  one  wishes  to  express 
with  simplicity.  Thus  a great  variety  of  terms  may  be  used 
in  Chinese  to  indicate  that  a person  has  died,  and  not  one  of 
the  expressions  is  guilty  of  the  brutality  of  saying  so  ; nor  does 
the  periphrasis  depend  for  its  use  upon  the  question  whether 
the  person  to  whom  reference  is  made  is  an  emperor  or  a 
coolie,  however  widely  the  terms  employed  may  differ  in  the 
two  cases.  Nor  are  we  at  present  concerned,  except  in  a very 
general  way,  with  the  quality  of  veracity  of  language.  When 

65 


66 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


every  one  agrees  to  use  words  in  “ a Pickwickian  sense,”  and 
every  one  understands  that  every  one  else  is  doing  so,  the 
questions  resulting  are  not  those  of  veracity  but  of  method. 

No  extended  experience  of  the  Chinese  is  required  to  en- 
able a foreigner  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble, from  merely  hearing  what  a Chinese  says,  to  tell  what  he 
means.  This  continues  to  be  true,  no  matter  how  proficient 
one  may  have  become  in  the  colloquial — so  that  he  perhaps 
understands  every  phrase,  and  might  possibly,  if  worst  came 
to  worst,  write  down  every  character  .which  he  has  heard  in  a 
given  sentence ; and  yet  he  might  be  unable  to  decide  exactly 
what  the  speaker  had  in  mind.  The  reason  of  this  must  of 
course  be  that  the  speaker  did  not  express  what  he  had  in 
mind,  but  something  else  more  or  less  cognate  to  it,  from 
which  he  wished  his  meaning  or  a part  of  it  to  be  inferred. 

Next  to  a competent  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language, 
large  powers  of  inference  are  essential  to  any  one  who  is  to 
deal  successfully  with  the  Chinese,  and  whatever  his  powers  in 
this  direction  may  be,  in  many  instances  he  will  still  go  astray, 
because  these  powers  were  not  equal  to  what  was  required  of 
them.  In  illustration  of  this  all-pervading  phenomenon  of 
Chinese  life,  let  us  take  as  an  illustration  a case  often  occur- 
ring among  those  who  are  the  earliest,  and  often  by  no  means 
the  least  important,  representatives  to  us  of  the  whole  nation 
— our  servants.  One  morning  the  “ Boy  ” puts  in  an  appear- 
ance with  his  usual  expressionless  visage,  merely  to  mention 
that  one  of  his  “ aunts  ” is  ailing,  and  that  he  shall  be  obliged 
to  forego  the  privilege  of  doing  our  work  for  a few  days  while 
he  is  absent  prosecuting  his  inquiries  as  to  her  condition.  Now 
it  does  not  with  certainty  follow  from  such  a request  as  this 
that  the  “ Boy  ” has  no  aunt,  that  she  is  not  sick,  and  that  he 
has  not  some  more  or  less  remote  idea  of  going  to  see  about 
her,  but  it  is,  to  put  it  mildly,  much  more  probable  that  the 
“ Boy  ” and  the  cook  have  had  some  misunderstanding,  and 


THE  TALENT  FOR  INDIRECTION 


67 


that  as  the  prestige  of  the  latter  happened  in  this  case  to  be 
the  greater  of  the  two,  his  rival  takes  this  oblique  method  of 
intimating  that  he  recognises  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  retires 
to  give  place  to  another. 

The  individual  who  has  done  you  a favour,  for  which  it 
was  impossible  to  arrange  at  the  time  a money  payment,  po- 
litely but  firmly  declines  the  gratuity  which  you  think  it  right 
to  send  him  in  token  of  your  obligation.  What  he  says  is  that 
it  would  violate  all  the  Five  Constant  Virtues  for  him  to  accept 
anything  of  you  for  such  an  insignificant  service,  and  that  you 
wrong  him  by  offering  it,  and  would  disgrace  him  by  insisting 
on  his  acceptance  of  it.  What  does  this  mean?  It  means 
that  his  hopes  of  what  you  would  give  him  were  blighted  by 
the  smallness  of  the  amount,  and  that,  like  Oliver  Twist,  he 
“ wants  more.”  And  yet  it  may  not  mean  this  after  all,  but 
may  be  an  intimation  that  you  do  now,  or  will  at  some  future 
time,  have  it  in  your  power  to  give  him  something  which  will 
be  even  more  desirable,  to  the  acquisition  of  which  the  present 
payment  would  be  a bar,  so  that  he  prefers  to  leave  it  an  open 
question  till  such  time  as  his  own  best  move  is  obvious. 

If  the  Chinese  are  thus  guarded  when  they  speak  of  their 
own  interests,  it  follows  from  the  universal  dread  of  giving 
offence  that  they  will  be  more  cautious  about  speaking  of 
others,  when  there  is  a possibility  of  trouble  arising  in  conse- 
quence. Fond  as  they  are  of  gossip  and  all  kinds  of  Small- 
talk, the  Chinese  distinguish  with  a ready  intuition  cases  in 
which  it  will  not  do  to  be  too  communicative,  and  under  these 
circumstances,  especially  where  foreigners  are  concerned,  they 
are  the  grave  of  whatever  they  happen  to  know.  In  multi- 
tudes of  instances  the  stolid-looking  people  by  whom  we  are 
surrounded  could  give  us  “points,”  the  possession  of  which 
would  cause  a considerable  change  in  our  conduct  towards 
others.  But  unless  they  clearly  see  in  what  way  they  are  to 
be  benefited  by  the  result,  and  protected  against  the  risks,  the 


68 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


instinct  of  reticence  will  prevail,  and  our  friends  will  maintain 
an  agnostic  silence. 

Nothing  is  more  amusing  than  to  watch  the  demeanour  of 
a Chinese  who  has  made  up  his  mind  that  it  is  best  for  him  to 
give  an  intimation  of  something  unfavourable  to  some  one 
else.  Things  must  have  gone  very  far  indeed  when,  even 
under  these  conditions,  the  communication  is  made  in  plain 
and  unmistakable  terms.  What  is  far  more  likely  to  occur  is 
the  indirect  suggestion,  by  oblique  and  devious  routes,  of  a 
something  which  cannot,  which  must  not  be  told.  Our  in- 
formant glances  uneasily  about  as  though  he  feared  a spy  in 
ambush.  He  lowers  his  voice  to  a mysterious  whisper.  He 
holds  up  three  fingers  of  one  hand,  to  shadow  dimly  forth  the 
notion  that  the  person  about  wThom  he  is  not  speaking,  but 
gesturing,  is  the  third  in  the  family.  He  makes  vague  intro- 
ductory remarks,  leading  up  to  a revelation  of  apparent  im- 
portance, and  just  as  he  gets  to  the  climax  of  the  case  he  sud- 
denly stops  short,  suppresses  the  predicate  upon  which  every- 
thing depends,  nods  significantly,  as  much  as  to  say,  " Now 
you  see  it,  do  you  not  ? ” when  all  the  while  the  poor  unen- 
lightened foreigner  has  seen  nothing,  except  that  there  is  noth- 
ing whatever  to  see.  Nor  will  it  be  strange  if,  after  working 
things  up  to  this  pitch,  your  “ informant  ” (falsely  so  called) 
leaves  you  as  much  in  the  dark  as  he  found  you,  intimating 
that  at  some  other  time  you  will  perceive  that  he  is  right! 

It  is  a trait  which  the  Chinese  share  with  the  rest  of  the 
race,  to  wish  to  keep  back  bad  news  as  long  as  possible,  and 
to  communicate  it  in  a disguised  shape.  But  “ good  form  ” 
among  Chinese  requires  this  deception  to  be  carried  to  an  ex- 
tent which  certainly  seems  to  us  at  once  surprising  and  futile. 
We  have  known  a fond  grandmother,  having  come  unexpect- 
edly upon  the  whispered  consultation  of  two  friends,  who  had 
arrived  expressly  to  break  to  her  the  news  of  the  sad  death  of 
a grandchild  away  from  home,  to  be  assured  with  the  empha- 


THE  TALENT  FOR  INDIRECTION 


69 


sis  of  iteration  that  they  were  only  discussing  a bit  of  gossip, 
though  within  half  an  hour  the  whole  truth  came  out.  We 
have  known  a son,  returning  to  his  home  after  an  absence  of 
several  months,  advised  by  a friend  in  the  last  village  at  which 
he  called  before  reaching  his  home  not  to  stay  and  see  a the- 
atrical exhibition,  from  which  he  inferred,  and  rightly,  that  his 
mother  was  dead!  We  once  had  a Chinese  letter  entrusted 
to  us  for  transmission  to  a person  at  a great  distance  from 
home,  the  contents  of  the  missive  being  to  the  effect  that 
during  his  absence  the  man’s  wife  had  died  suddenly,  and  that 
the  neighbours,  finding  that  no  one  was  at  hand  to  prevent  it, 
had  helped  themselves  to  every  article  in  the  house,  which  was 
literally  left  unto  him  desolate.  Yet  on  the  exterior  of  this 
epistle  were  inscribed  in  huge  characters  the  not  too  accurate 
words,  “A  peaceful  family  letter”! 

The  Chinese  talent  for  indirection  is  often  exhibited  in  re- 
fraining from  the  use  of  numerals  where  they  might  reason- 
ably be  expected.  Thus  the  five  volumes  of  a book  will  be 
labelled  Benevolence,  Justice,  Propriety,  Wisdom,  Confidence, 
because  this  is  the  invariable  order  in  which  the  Five  Constant 
Virtues  are  named.  The  two  score  or  more  volumes  of  K'ang 
Hsi’s  Dictionary  are  often  distinguished,  not,  as  we  should 
anticipate,  by  the  radicals  which  indicate  their  contents,  but 
by  the  twelve  “ time-cycle  characters.”  At  examinations  stu- 
dents occupy  cells  designated  by  the  thousand  successive 
characters  of  the  millenary  classic,  which  has  no  duplicates. 

Another  illustration  of  this  subject  is  found  in  the  oblique 
terms  in  which  references  are  made,  both  by  members  of  her 
family  and  others,  to  married  women.  Such  a woman  liter- 
ally has  no  name,  but  only  two  surnames,  her  husband’s  and 
that  of  her  mother’s  family.  She  is  spoken  of  as  “ the  mother 
of  so-and-so.”  Thus  a Chinese  with  whom  you  are  acquainted, 
talks  of  the  illness  of  “ the  Little  Black  One  his  mother.” 
Perhaps  you  never  heard  in  any  way  that  he  had  a “ Little 


7° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Black  One  ” in  his  household,  but  he  takes  it  for  granted  that 
you  must  know  it.  If,  however,  there  are  no  children,  then 
the  matter  is  more  embarrassing.  Perhaps  the  woman  is 
called  the  “Aunt”  of  a “Little  Black  One,”  or  by  some  other 
periphrasis.  Elderly  married  women  have  no  hesitation  in 
speaking  of  their  “ Outside,”  meaning  the  one  who  has  the 
care  of  things  out  of  the  house ; but  a young  married  woman 
not  blessed  with  children  is  sometimes  put  to  hard  straits  in  the 
attempt  to  refer  to  her  husband  without  intimating  the  con- 
nection in  words.  Sometimes  she  calls  him  her  “ Teacher,” 
and  in  one  case  of  which  we  have  heard  she  was  driven  to  the 
desperate  expedient  of  dubbing  her  husband  by  the  name  of 
his  business — “ Oilmill  says  thus  and  so!  ” 

A celebrated  Chinese  general,  on  his  way  to  the  war,  bowed 
low  to  some  frogs  in  a marsh  which  he  passed,  wishing  his 
soldiers  to  understand  that  valour  like  that  of  these  reptiles  is 
admirable.  To  an  average  Occidental  it  might  appear  that 
this  general  demanded  of  his  troop  somewhat  “ large  powers 
of  inference,”  but  not  greater,  perhaps,  than  will  be  called  for 
by  the  foreigner  whose  lot  is  cast  in  China.  About  the  time 
of  a Chinese  New-Yearwhen  the  annual  debt-paying  season 
had  arrived,  an  acquaintance,  upon  meeting  the  writer,  made 
certain  gestures  which  seemed  to  have  a deep  significance. 
He  pointed  his  finger  at  the  sky,  then  at  the  ground,  then  at 
the  person  whom  he  was  addressing,  and  last  at  himself,  all 
without  speaking  a word.  There  was  certainly  no  excuse  for 
misapprehending  this  proposition,  though  we  are  ashamed  to 
say  that  we  failed  to  take  it  in  at  its  full  value.  He  thought 
that  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  one’s  inferring  from  his 
pantomime  that  he  wished  to  borrow  a little  money,  and  that  he 
wished  to  do  it  so  secretly  that  only  “Heaven,”  “Earth,”  “You,” 
and  “I  ” would  know  ! The  phrase  “ eating  [gluttony],  drink- 
ing [of  wine],  lust,  and  gambling  ” denotes  the  four  most  com- 
mon vices,  to  which  is  now  added  opium  smoking.  A speaker 


Chinese  Card  Players. 


THE  TALENT  FOR  INDIRECTION 


7 1 


sometimes  holds  up  the  fingers  of  one  hand  and  remarks, 
“ He  absorbed  them  all,”  meaning  that  some  one  was  guilty 
in  all  these  ways. 

It  is  an  example  of  the  Chinese  talent  for  indirection,  that 
owing  to  their  complex  ceremonial  code  one  is  able  to  show 
great  disrespect  for  another  by  methods  which  to  us  seem 
preposterously  oblique.  The  manner  of  folding  a letter,  for 
example,  may  embody  a studied  affront.  The  omission  to 
raise  a Chinese  character  above  the  line  of  other  characters 
may  be  a greater  indignity  than  it  would  be  in  English  to 
spell  the  name  of  a person  without  capital  letters.  In  social 
intercourse  rudeness  may  be  offered  without  the  utterance  of 
a word  to  which  exception  could  be  taken,  as  by  not  meeting 
an  entering  guest  at  the  proper  point,  or  by  neglecting  to 
escort  him  the  distance  suited  to  his  condition.  The  omission 
of  any  one  of  a multitude  of  simple  acts  may  convey  a thinly 
disguised  insult,  instantly  recognised  as  such  by  a Chinese, 
though  the  poor  untutored  foreigner  has  been  thus  victimised 
times  without  number,  and  never  even  knew  that  he  had  not 
been  treated  with  distinguished  respect!  All  Chinese  revile 
one  another  when  angry,  but  those  whose  literary;  talents  are 
adequate  to  the  task  delight  to  convey  an  abusive  meaning  by 
such  delicate  innuendo  that  the  real  meaning  may  for  the  time 
quite  escape  observation,  requiring  to  be  digested  like  the 
nauseous  core  of  a sugar-coated  pill.  Thus,  the  phrase  tung- 
hsi — literally  “ east-west  ” — means  a thing,  and  to  call  a per- 
son “ a thing  ” is  abusive.  But  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by 
indirection,  by  saying  that  one  is  not  “north-south,”  which 
implies  that  he  is  “east-west,”  that  is,  “a  thing”! 

Every  one  must  have  been  struck  by  the  wonderful  fertility 
of  even  the  most  illiterate  Chinese  in  the  impromptu  inven- 
tion of  plausible  excuses,  each  one  of  which  is  in  warp  and 
woof  fictitious.  No  one  but  a foreigner  ever  thinks  of  taking 
them  seriously,  or  as  any  other  than  suitable  devices  by  which 


72 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


to  keep  one’s  “face.”  And  even  the  too  critical  foreigner 
requires  no  common  ability  to  pursue,  now  in  air,  now  in 
water,  and  now  in  the  mud,  those  to  whom  most  rigid  econ- 
omy of  the  truth  has  become  a fixed  habit.  And  when  driven 
to  close  quarters,  the  most  ignorant  Chinese  has  one  firm  and 
sure  defence  which  never  fails,  he  can  fall  back  on  his  igno- 
rance in  full  assurance  of  escape.  He  “ did  not  know,”  he 
“ did  not  understand,”  twin  propositions,  which,  like  charity, 
cover  a multitude  of  sins. 

No  more  fruitful  illustration  of  our  theme  could  be  found 
than  that  exhibited  in  the  daily  issues  of  the  Peking  Gazette. 
Nowhere  is  the  habit  of  what,  in  classical  language,  is  styled 
“ pointing  at  a deer  and  calling  it  a horse  ” earned  to  a higher 
pitch,  and  conducted  on  a more  generous  scale.  Nowhere  is 
it  more  true,  even  in  China,  that  “ things  are  not  what  they 
seem,”  than  in  this  marvellous  lens,  which,  semi-opaque 
though  it  be,  lets  in  more  light  on  the  real  nature  of  the  Chi- 
nese government  than  all  other  windows  combined.  If  it  is 
a general  truth  that  a Chinese  would  be  more  likely  than  not 
to  give  some  other  than  the  real  reason  for  anything,  and  that 
nothing  requires  more  skill  than  to  guess  what  is  meant  by 
what  is  said,  this  nowhere  finds  more  perfect  exemplification 
than  in  Chinese  official  life,  where  formality  and  artificiality 
are  at  their  maximum.  When  a whole  column  of  the  “ lead- 
ing journal  ” of  China  is  taken  up  with  a description  of  the 
various  aches  and  pains  of  some  aged  mandarin  who  hungers 
and  thirsts  to  retire  from  His  Majesty’s  service,  what  does  it 
all  mean?  When  his  urgent  prayer  to  be  relieved  is  refused, 
and  he  is  told  to  go  back  to  his  post  at  once,  what  does  that 
mean?  What  do  the  long  memorials  reporting  as  to  matters 
of  fact  really  connote  ? When  a high  official  accused  of  some 
flagrant  crime  is  ascertained — as  per  memorial  printed — to  be 
innocent,  but  guilty  of  something  else  three  shades  less  blame- 
worthy, does  it  mean  that  the  writer  of  the  memorial  was  not 


THE  TALENT  FOR  INDIRECTION 


73 


influenced  to  a sufficient  extent,  or  has  the  official  in  question 
really  done  those  particular  things  ? Who  can  decide  ? 

Firmly  are  we  persuaded  that  the  individual  who  can  peruse 
a copy  of  the  Peking  Gazette  and,  while  reading  each  docu- 
ment, can  form  an  approximately  correct  notion  as  to  what  is 
really  behind  it,  knows  more  of  China  than  can  be  learned 
from  all  the  works  on  this  Empire  that  ever  were  written. 
But  is  there  not  reason  to  fear  that  by  the  time  any  outside 
barbarian  shall  have  reached  such  a pitch  of  comprehension 
of  China  as  this  implies,  we  shall  be  as  much  at  a loss  to 
know  what  he  meant  by  what  he  said,  as  if  he  were  really 
Chinese? 


CHAPTER  IX. 


FLEXIBLE  INFLEXIBILITY. 


HE  first  knowledge  which  we  acquire  of  the  Chinese  is 


X derived  from  our  servants.  Unconsciously  to  themselves, 
and  not  always  to  our  satisfaction,  they  are  our  earliest  teach- 
ers in  the  native  character,  and  the  lessons  thus  learned  we 
often  find  it  hard  to  forget.  But  in  proportion  as  our  experi- 
ence of  the  Chinese  becomes  broad,  we  discover  that  the  con- 
clusions to  which  we  had  been  insensibly  impelled  by  our 
dealings  with  a very  narrow  circle  of  servants  are  strikingly 
confirmed  by  our  wider  knowledge,  for  there  is  a sense  in 
which  every  Chinese  may  be  said  to  be  an  epitome  of  the 
whole  race.  The  particular  characteristic  with  which  we  have 
now  to  deal,  although  not  satisfactorily  described  by  the  para- 
doxical title  which  seems  to  come  nearest  to  an  adequate 
expression,  can  easily  be  made  intelligible  by  a very  slight 
description. 

Of  all  the  servants  employed  in  a foreign  establishment  in 
China,  there  is  no  one  who  so  entirely  holds  the  peace  of  the 
household  in  the  hollow  of  his  hands,  as  the  cook.  His  aspect 
is  the  personification  of  deference  as  he  is  told  by  his  new 
mistress  what  are  the  methods  which  she  wishes  him  to  em- 
ploy, and  what  methods  she  most  emphatically  does  not  wish 
employed.  To  all  that  is  laid  down  as  the  rule  of  the  estab- 
lishment he  assents  with  a cordiality  which  is  prepossessing, 
not  to  say  winning.  He  is,  for  example,  expressly  warned 
that  the  late  cook  had  a disagreeable  habit  of  putting  the 


74 


FLEXIBLE  INFLEXIBILITY 


75 


bread  into  the  oven  before  it  was  suitably  raised,  and  that  as 
this  is  one  of  the  details  on  which  a mistress  feels  bound  to 
insist,  he  and  his  mistress  parted.  To  this  the  candidate  re- 
sponds cheerfully,  showing  that  whatever  his  other  faults  may 
be,  obstinacy  does  not  seem  to  be  one  of  them.  He  is  told 
that  dogs,  loafers,  and  smoking  will  not  be  tolerated  in  the 
kitchen ; to  which  he  replies  that  he  hates  dogs,  has  never 
learned  to  smoke,  and  being  a comparative  stranger,  has  but 
few  friends  in  the  city,  and  none  of  them  are  loafers.  After 
these  preliminaries  his  duties  begin,  and  it  is  but  a few  days 
before  it  is  discovered  that  this  cook  is  a species  of  “ blood 
brother  ” of  the  last  one  in  the  item  of  imperfectly  risen  bread, 
that  there  is  an  unaccountable  number  of  persons  coming  to 
and  departing  from  the  kitchen,  many  of  them  accompanied 
by  dogs,  and  that  a not  very  faint  odour  of  stale  tobacco  is 
one  of  the  permanent  assets  of  the  establishment.  The  cook 
cordially  admits  that  the  bread  is  not  quite  equal  to  his  best, 
but  is  sure  that  it  is  not  due  to  imperfect  kneading.  He  is 
particular  on  that  point.  The  strangers  seen  in  the  kitchen 
are  certain  “ yard  brothers  ” of  the  coolie,  but  none  of  them 
had  dogs,  and  they  are  all  gone  now  and  will  not  return — 
though  they  are  seen  again  next  day.  Not  one  of  the  servants 
ever  smokes,  and  the  odour  must  have  come  over  the  wall 
from  the  establishment  of  a man  whose  servants  are  dreadful 
smokers.  The  cook  is  the  personification  of  reasonableness, 
but  as  there  is  nothing  to  change  he  does  not  know  how  to 
change  it. 

The  same  state  of  things  holds  with  the  coolie  who  is  set  to 
cut  the  grass  with  a foreign  sickle,  bright  and  sharp.  He  re- 
ceives it  with  a smile  of  approval,  and  is  seen  later  in  the  day 
doing  the  work  with  a Chinese  reaping-machine,  which  is  a 
bit  of  old  iron  about  four  inches  in  length,  fitted  to  a short 
handle.  “ The  old,”  he  seems  to  say,  “ is  better.”  The  wash- 
erman is  provided  with  a foreign  washing-machine,  which 


?6 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


economises  time,  soap,  labour,  and,  most  of  all,  the  clothing 
to  be  washed.  He  is  furnished  with  a patent  wringer  which 
requires  no  strength,  and  does  not  damage  the  fabrics.  The 
washing-machine  and  the  wringer  are  alike  suffered  to  relapse 
into  “innocuous  desuetude,”  and  the  washerman  continues  to 
scrub  and  wrench  the  garments  into  holes  and  shreds  as  in 
former  days.  Eternal  vigilance  i&  the  price  at  which  innova- 
tions of  this  nature  are  to  be  defended. 

The  gardener  is  told  to  repair  a decayed  wall  by  using  some 
adobe  bricks  which  are  already  on  hand,  but  he  thinks  it 
better  to  use  the  branches  of  trees  buried  a foot  deep  in  the 
top  of  the  wall,  and  accordingly  does  so,  explaining,  if  he  is 
questioned,  the  superiority  of  his  method.  The  messenger 
who  is  employed  to  take  an  important  mail  to  a place  several 
days’  journey  distant,  receives  his  packages  late  in  the  evening, 
that  he  may  start  the  next  morning  by  daylight.  The  next 
afternoon  he  is  seen  in  a neighbouring  alley,  and  on  being 
sent  for  and  asked  what  he  means,  he  informs  us  that  he  was 
obliged  to  take  a day  and  wash  his  stockings!  It  is  the  same 
experience  with  the  carter  whom  you  have  hired  by  the  day. 
He  is  told  to  go  a particular  route,  to  which,  like  all  others  in 
the  cases  supposed,  he  assents,  and  takes  you  by  an  entirely 
different  one,  because  he  has  heard  from  some  passing  stranger 
that  the  other  was  not  so  good.  Cooks,  coolies,  gardeners, 
carters — all  agree  in  distrusting  our  judgment,  and  in  placing 
supreme  reliance  upon  their  own. 

Phenomena  illustrating  our  subject  are  constantly  observed 
wherever  there  is  a foreign  dispensary  and  hospital.  The 
patient  is  examined  carefully  and  prescribed  for,  receives  his 
medicine  in  a specified  number  of  doses,  with  directions  thrice 
repeated  to  avoid  mistakes,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  and 
times  at  which  it  is  to  be  taken.  Lest  he  should  forget  the 
details,  he  returns  once  or  twice  to  make  sure,  goes  home  and 
swallows  the  doses  for  two  days  at  a gulp,  because  the  excel- 


FLEXIBLE  INFLEXIBILITY 


77 


lence  of  the  cure  must  be  in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  dose.  The 
most  minute  and  emphatic  cautions  against  disturbing  a plas- 
ter jacket  are  not  sufficient  to  prevent  its  summary  removal, 
because  the  patient  does  not  wish  to  become  a “ turtle,”  and 
have  a hard  shell  grow  to  his  skin. 

It  is  not  a very  comforting  reflection,  but  it  is  one  which 
seems  to  be  abundantly  justified  by  observation,  that  the 
opinion  of  the  most  ignorant  assistant  in  a dispensary  seems 
(and  therefore  is)  to  the  average  patient  as  valuable  as  that  of 
the  physician  in  charge,  though  the  former  may  not  be  able 
to  read  a character,  does  not  know  the  name  of  a drug  or 
the  symptoms  of  any  disease,  and  though  the  latter  may  have 
been  decorated  with  all  the  letters  in  the  alphabet  of  medical 
titles,  and  have  had  a generation  of  experience.  Yet  a hint 
from  the  gatekeeper  or  the  coolie  may  be  sufficient  to  secure 
the  complete  disregard  of  the  directions  of  the  physician,  and 
the  adoption  of  something  certainly  foolish,  and  possibly  fatal. 

Thus  far,  we  have  spoken  of  instances  of  inflexibility  in  which 
foreigners  are  concerned,  for  those  are  the  ones  to  which  our 
attention  is  soonest  drawn,  and  which  possess  for  us  the  most 
practical  interest.  But  the  more  our  observation  is  directed  to 
the  relations  of  the  Chinese  to  one  another,  through  which  if 
anywhere  their  true  dispositions  are  to  be  manifested,  the 
more  we  perceive  that  the  state  of  things  indicated  by  the  ex- 
pressive Chinese  phrase  “ Outwardly  is,  inwardly  is  not,”  is 
not  exceptional.  Chinese  servants  are  yielding  and  complai- 
sant to  Chinese  masters,  as  Chinese  servants  are  to  foreign 
masters,  but  they  have  no  idea  of  not  doing  things  in  their 
own  way,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  their  masters  never  for  a 
moment  suppose  that  their  orders  will  be  literally  obeyed.  A 
foreign  employer  requires  his  employes  to  do  exactly  as  they 
are  told,  and  because  they  do  not  do  so  he  is  in  a state  of 
chronic  hostility  to  some  of  them.  A friend  of  the  writer 
who  had  one  of  that  numerous  class  of  servants  who  combine 


7» 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


extreme  faithfulness  with  extreme  mulishness — thus  making 
themselves  an  indispensably  necessary  nuisance — happily  ex- 
pressed a dilemma  into  which  the  masters  of  such  servants  are 
often  brought,  when  he  remarked  that  as  regarded  that  partic- 
ular “ Boy,”  he  was  in  a condition  of  chronic  indecision, 
whether  to  kill  him  or  to  raise  his  wages!  The  Chinese  master 
knows  perfectly  well  that  his  commands  will  be  ignored  in 
various  ways,  but  he  anticipates  this  inevitable  result  as  one 
might  set  aside  a reserve  for  bad  debts,  or  allow  a margin  for 
friction  in  mechanics. 

The  same  greater  or  less  disregard  of  orders  appears  to  pre- 
vail through  all  the  various  ranks  of  Chinese  officials  in  their 
relations  to  one  another,  up  to  the  very  topmost  round.  There 
are  several  motives  any  one  of  which  may  lead  to  the  contra- 
vening of  instructions,  such  as  personal  indolence,  a wish  to 
oblige  friends,  or,  most  potent  of  all,  the  magnetic  influence 
of  cash.  A district  magistrate  who  lived  in  a place  where  the 
water  is  brackish,  ordered  his  servant  to  take  a water-cart  and 
draw  water  from  a river  several  miles  distant.  The  servant 
did  nothing  of  the  kind,  but  merely  went  to  a village  where  he 
knew  the  water  to  be  sweet,  and  provided  the  magistrate  with 
as  much  as  he  wanted  of  this  fluid,  to  the  saving  of  two  thirds 
the  distance  and  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  all  parties.  If  the 
magistrate  had  known  to  a certainty  that  he  was  disobeyed,  it 
is  not  probable  that  he  would  have  uttered  a whisper  on  the 
subject  so  long  as  the  water  was  good.  In  China  “ the  cat 
that  catches  the  rat  is  the  good  cat.”  Nothing  succeeds  like 
success.  The  dread  of  giving  offence  and  the  innate  Chinese 
instinct  of  avoiding  a disturbance  would  prevent  misdemean- 
ours of  disobedience  from  being  reported,  though  five  hundred 
people  might  be  in  the  secret.  That  was  a typical  Chinese 
servant  who,  having  been  told  to  empty  the  water  from  a 
cistern  into  something  which  would  save  it  for  future  use, 
was  found  to  have  poured  it  all  into  a well ! Thus  he  con- 


FLEXIBLE  INFLEXIBILITY 


79 


trived  to  preserve  the  shell  of  conformity,  with  the  most  abso- 
lute negation  of  any  practical  result.  Dr.  Rennie  mentions 
the  case  of  an  official  at  Amoy,  who  cut  in  two  an  Imperial 
proclamation,  posting  the  last  part  first,  so  that  it  could  not 
easily  be  read.  Such  devices  are  common  in  matters  concern- 
ing foreigners,  whom  mandarins  seldom  wish  to  please. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  such  a policy  of  evasion  may  come 
into  collision  with  the  demands  of  justice.  The  magistrate 
sentences  a criminal  to  wear  a heavy  wooden  collar  for  a 
period  of  two  months,  except  at  night,  when  it  is  to  be  re- 
moved. By  the  judicious  expenditure  of  cash  “where  it  will 
do  the  most  good,”  this  order  is  only  so  far  carried  out  that 
the  criminal  is  decorated  with  the  cangue  at  such  times  as  the 
magistrate  is  making  his  entrance  to  and  his  exit  from  the 
yamen.  At  all  other  times  the  criminal  is  quite  free  from  the 
obnoxious  burden.  Does  the  magistrate  not  suspect  that  his 
sentence  will  be  defeated  by  bribery,  and  will  he  slip  out  the 
back  way  in  order  to  come  upon  the  explicit  proof  of  disobe- 
dience ? By  no  means.  The  magistrate  is  himself  a Chinese, 
and  he  knew  when  the  sentence  was  fixed  that  it  would  not 
be  regarded,  and  with  this  in  mind  he  made  the  term  twice  as 
long  as  it  might  otherwise  have  been.  This  seems  to  be  a 
sample  of  the  intricacies  of  official  intercourse  in  all  depart- 
ments, as  exemplified  by  what  foreigners  continually  observe. 
The  higher  officer  orders  the  lower  to  see  that  a certain  step  is 
taken.  The  lower  official  reports  respectfully  that  it  has  been 
done.  Meanwhile  nothing  has  been  done  at  all.  In  many 
cases  this  is  the  end  of  the  matter.  But  if  there  is  a continued 
pressure  from  some  quarter,  and  the  orders  are  urgent,  the 
lower  magistrate  transmits  the  pressure  to  those  still  lower, 
and  throws  the  blame  upon  them,  until  the  7nomenhtm  of  the 
pressure  is  exhausted,  and  then  things  go  on  just  as  they  were 
before.  This  is  called  “ reform,”  and  is  often  seen  on  a great 
scale,  as  in  the  spasmodic  suppression  of  the  sale  of  opium,  or 


8o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy,  with  results  which  are  known 
to  all. 

There  are  doubtless  those  to  whom  the  Chinese  seem  the 
most  “ obstinate  ” of  peoples,  and  to  such  the  adjective  “ flex- 
ible,” which  we  have  employed  to  characterise  the  “ inflexi- 
bility ” of  the  Chinese,  will  appear  singularly  inappropriate. 
Nevertheless,  we  must  repeat  the  conviction  that  the  Chinese 
are  far  from  being  the  most  obstinate  of  peoples,  and  that  they 
are  in  fact  far  less  obstinate  than  the  Anglo-Saxons.  We  call 
them  “ flexible  ” because,  with  a “ firmness  ” like  that  of  mules, 
they  unite  a capacity  of  bending  of  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  is 
frequently  destitute. 

No  better  illustration  of  this  talent  of  the  Chinese  for  “ flex- 
ibility ” can  be  cited,  than  their  ability  to  receive  gracefully 
a reproof.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  it  is  a lost  art,  or 
rather  it  is  an  art  that  was  never  discovered.  But  the  Chi- 
nese listens  patiently,  attentively,  even  cordially,  while  you 
are  exposing  to  him  his  own  shortcomings,  assents  cheerfully, 
and  adds,  “ I am  in  fault,  I am  in  fault.”  Perhaps  he  even 
thanks  you  for  your  kindness  to  his  unworthy  self,  and  prom- 
ises that  the  particulars  which  you  have  specified  shall  be 
immediately,  thoroughly,  permanently  reformed.  These  fair 
promises  you  well  know  to  be  “ flowers  in  the  mirror,  and  the 
bright  moon  in  the  water,”  but  despite  their  unsubstantial 
nature,  it  is  impossible  not  to  be  mollified  therewith,  and  this, 
be  it  noted,  is  the  object  for  which  they  were  designed. 

Few  comparisons  of  the  sort  hit  the  mark  more  exactly 
than  that  which  likens  the  Chinese  to  the  bamboo.  It  is 
graceful,  it  is  everywhere  useful,  it  is  supple,  and  it  is  hollow. 
When  the  east  wind  blows  it  bends  to  the  west.  When  the 
west  wind  blows  it  bends  to  the  east.  When  no  wind  blows 
it  does  not  bend  at  all.  The  bamboo  plant  is  a grass.  It  is 
easy  to  tie  knots  in  grasses.  It  is  difficult,  despite  its  supple- 
ness, to  tie  knots  in  the  bamboo  plant.  Nothing  in  nature  is 


FLEXIBLE  INFLEXIBILITY 


81 


more  flexible  than  a human  hair.  It  can  be  drawn  out  a large 
percentage  of  its  own  length,  and  when  the  tractile  force  is 
withdrawn,  it  at  once  contracts.  It  bends  in  any  direction  by 
its  own  weight  alone.  There  is  a certain  growth  of  hair  on 
many  human  heads  which  consists  of  definite  tufts,  quite  per- 
sistent in  the  direction  of  their  growth,  and  generally  incapa- 
ble of  any  modification.  Such  a growth  is  vulgarly  called  a 
“ cow-lick,”  and  as  it  cannot  be  controlled,  the  remaining 
hairs,  however  numerous  they  may  be,  must  be  arranged  with 
reference  thereto.  If  the  planet  on  which  we  dwell  be  con- 
sidered as  a head,  and  the  several  nations  as  the  hair,  the 
Chinese  race  is  a venerable  cow-lick,  capable  of  being  combed, 
clipped,  and  possibly  shaved,  but  which  is  certain  to  grow 
again  just  as  before,  and  the  general  direction  of  which  is  not 
likely  to  be  changed. 


CHAPTER  X. 


INTELLECTUAL  TURBIDITY. 

IN  speaking  of  “ intellectual  turbidity  ” as  a Chinese  charac- 
teristic, we  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  affirming  it  to 
be  a peculiarity  of  the  Chinese,  or  that  all  Chinese  possess  it. 
Taken  as  a whole,  the  Chinese  people  seem  abundantly  able  to 
hold  their  own  with  any  race  now  extant,  and  they  certainly 
exhibit  no  weakness  of  the  intellectual  powers,  nor  any  tend- 
ency to  such  a weakness.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  education  in  China  is  restricted  to  a very  narrow 
circle,  and  that  those  who  are  but  imperfectly  educated,  or 
who  are  not  educated  af  all,  enjoy  in  the  structure  of  the  Chi- 
nese language  what  is  called  by  the  lawyers  an  “accessory 
before  the  fact  ” to  any  most  flagrant  intellectual  turbidity  of 
which  they  may  be  disposed  to  be  guilty. 

Chinese  nouns,  as  is  by  this  time  known  to  several,  appear 
to  be  indeclinable.  They  are  quite  free  from  “ gender  ” and 
“ case.”  Chinese  adjectives  have  no  degrees  of  comparison. 
Chinese  verbs  are  not  hampered  by  any  “ voice,”  “ mode,” 
“ tense,”  “ number,”  or  “ person.”  There  is  no  recognisable 
distinction  between  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  for  any  char- 
acter may  be  used  indiscriminately  in  either  capacity  (or  in- 
capacity), and  no  questions  asked.  We  are  not  about  to  com- 
plain that  the  Chinese  language  cannot  be  made  to  convey 
human  thought,  nor  that  there  are  wide  ranges  of  human 
thought  which  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  render  intelligible 
in  the  Chinese  language  (though  this  appears  to  be  a truth), 

82 


INTELLECTUAL  TURBIDITY 


8 3 


but  only  to  insist  that  such  a language,  so  constructed,  invites 
to  “intellectual  turbidity”  as  the  incandescent  heats  of  summer 
gently  woo  to  afternoon  repose. 

Nothing  is  more  common  in  conversation  with  an  unedu- 
cated Chinese  than  to  experience  extreme  difficulty  in  ascer- 
taining what  he  is  talking  about.  At  times  his  remarks  appear 
to  consist  exclusively  of  predicates,  which  are  woven  together 
in  an  intricate  manner,  the  whole  mass  seeming,  like  Moham- 
med’s coffin,  to  hang  in  the  air,  attached  to  nothing  whatever. 
To  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  the  omission  of  a nominative  is  a 
point  of  no  consequence.  He  knows  what  he  is  talking  about, 
and  it  never  occurs  to  him  that  this  somewhat  important  item 
of  information  is  not  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  his  auditor  by 
any  kind  of  intuition.  It  is  remarkable  what  expert  guessers 
long  practice  has  made  most  Chinese,  in  reading  a meaning 
into  words  which  do  not  convey  it,  by  the  simple  practice  of 
supplying  subjects  or  predicates  as  they  happen  to  be  lacking. 
It  is  often  the  most  important  word  in  the  whole  sentence 
which  is  suppressed,  the  clue  to  which  may  be  entirely  un- 
known. There  is  very  frequently  nothing  in  the  form  of  the 
sentences,  the  manner  of  the  speaker,  his  tone  of  voice,  nor 
in  any  concomitant  circumstance,  to  indicate  that  the  subject 
has  changed,  and  yet  one  suddenly  discovers  that  the  speaker 
is  not  now  speaking  of  himself  as  he  was  a moment  ago,  but 
of  his  grandfather,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Tao  Kuang. 
How  the  speaker  got  there,  and  also  how  he  got  back  again, 
often  remains  an  insoluble  mystery,  but  we  see  the  feat  accom- 
plished every  day.  To  a Chinese  there  is  nothing  more  re- 
markable in  a sudden,  invisible  leap,  without  previous  notice, 
from  one  topic,  one  person,  one  century  to  another,  than  in 
the  ability  of  a man  who  is  watching  an  insect  on  the  window- 
pane  to  observe  at  the  same  time  and  without  in  the  least  de- 
flecting his  eyes,  a herd  of  cattle  situated  in  the  same  line  of 
vision  on  a distant  hill. 


84 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


The  fact  that  Chinese  verbs  have  no  tenses,  and  that  there 
is  nothing  to  mark  transitions  of  time,  or  indeed  of  place,  does 
not  tend  to  clarify  one’s  perceptions  of  the  inherently  turbid. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  best  the  poor  foreigner  can  do, 
who  wishes  to  keep  up  the  appearance  at  least  of  following  in 
the  train  of  the  vanished  thought,  is  to  begin  a series  of  cate- 
chetical inquiries,  like  a frontier  hunter  “ blazing  ” his  way 
through  a pathless  forest  with  a hatchet.  “ Who  was  this 
person  that  you  are  talking  about  now?”  This  being  ascer- 
tained, it  is  possible  to  proceed  to  inquire,  “Where  was  this?” 
“When  was  it?”  “What  was  it  that  this  man  did?”  “What 
was  it  that  they  did  about  it?”  “What  happened  then?”  At 
each  of  these  questions  your  Chinese  friend  gazes  at  you  with 
a bewildered  and  perhaps  an  appealing  look,  as  if  in  doubt 
whether  you  have  not  parted  with  all  your  five  senses.  But  a 
persistent  pursuit  of  this  silken  thread  of  categorical  inquiry 
will  make  it  the  clue  of  Ariadne  in  delivering  one  from  many 
a hopeless  labyrinth. 

To  the  uneducated  Chinese  any  idea  whatever  comes  as  a 
surprise,  for  which  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  he  will  not 
be  totally  unprepared.  He  does  not  understand,  because  he 
does  not  expect  to  understand,  and  it  takes  him  an  appreciable 
time  to  get  such  intellectual  forces  as  he  has  into  a position 
to  be  used  at  all.  His  mind  is  like  a rusty  old  smooth-bore 
cannon  mounted  on  a decrepit  carriage,  which  requires  much 
hauling  about  before  it  can  be  pointed  at  anything,  and  then 
it  is  sure  to  miss  fire.  Thus  when  a person  is  asked  a simple 
question,  such  as  “ How  old  are  you?  ” he  gazes  vacantly  at 
the  questioner,  and  asks  in  return,  “ I ? ” To  which  you  re- 
spond, “Yes,  you.”  To  this  he  replies  with  a summoning  up 
of  his  mental  energies  for  the  shock,  “How  old?”  “Yes, 
how  old  ? ” Once  more  adjusting  the  focus,  he  inquires, 
“How  old  am  I ?”  “Yes,”  you  say,  “how  old  are  you?” 


INTELLECTUAL  TURBIDITY 


85 


“ Fifty-eight,”  he  replies,  with  accuracy  of  aim,  his  piece  being 
now  in  working  order. 

A prominent  example  of  intellectual  turbidity  is  the  preva- 
lent habit  of  announcing  as  a reason  for  a fact,  the  fact  itself. 
“ Why  do  you  not  put  salt  into  bread-cakes  ? ” you  ask  of  a 
Chinese  cook.  “ We  do  not  put  salt  into  bread-cakes,”  is  the 
explanation.  “ How  is  it  that  with  so  much  and  such  beautiful 
ice  in  your  city  none  of  it  is  stored  up  for  winter?”  “No, 
we  do  not  store  up  ice  for  winter  in  our  city.”  If  the  Latin 
poet  who  observed,  “ Happy  is  he  who  is  able  to  know  the 
reasons  of  things,”  had  lived  in  China,  he  might  have  modified 
his  dictum  so  as  to  read,  “ Unhappy  is  the  man  who  essays  to 
find  out  the  reasons  of  things.” 

Another  mark  of  intellectual  torpor  is  the  inability  of  an 
ordinary  mind  to  entertain  an  idea,  and  then  pass  it  on  to 
another  in  its  original  shape.  To  tell  A something  which  he 
is  to  tell  B,  in  order  that  C may  govern  his  actions  thereby,  is 
in  China  one  of  the  most  fatuous  of  undertakings.  Either  the 
message  will  never  be  delivered  at  all,  because  the  parties 
concerned  did  not  understand  that  it  was  of  importance,  or  it 
reaches  C in  such  a shape  that  he  cannot  comprehend  it,  or 
in  a form  totally  at  variance  with  its  original.  To  suppose 
that  three  cogs  in  so  complicated  a piece  of  machinery  are 
capable  of  playing  into  each  other  without  such  friction  as  to 
stop  the  works,  is  to  entertain  a very  wild  hope.  Even  minds 
of  considerable  intelligence  find  it  hard  to  take  in  and  then 
give  out  an  idea  without  addition  or  diminution,  just  as  clear 
water  is  certain  to  refract  the  image  of  a straight  stick  as  if  it 
were  a broken  one. 

Illustrations  of  these  peculiarities  will  meet  the  observant 
foreigner  at  every  turn.  “ Why  did  he  do  so?  ” you  inquire 
in  regard  to  some  preposterous  act.  "Yes,”  is  the  compen- 
dious reply.  There  is  a certain  numeral  word  in  constant  use, 


86 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


which  is  an  aggravating  accessory  to  vague  replies.  It  sig- 
nifies both  interrogatively,  “ How  many?  ” and  affirmatively, 
“Several.”  “How  many  days  have  you  been  here?”  you 
ask.  “ Yes,  I have  been  here  several  days,”  is  the  reply.  Of 
all  the  ambiguous  words  in  the  Chinese  language,  probably 
the  most  ambiguous  is  the  personal  (or  impersonal)  pronoun 
t‘a,  which  signifies  promiscuously  “ he,”  “she,”  or  “ it.”  Some- 
times the  speaker  designates  the  subject  of  his  remarks  by 
vaguely  waving  his  thumb  in  the  direction  of  the  subject’s 
home,  or  towards  the  point  where  he  was  last  heard  of.  But 
more  frequently  the  single  syllable  fa  is  considered  wholly 
sufficient  as  a relative,  as  a demonstrative  pronoun,  and  as  a 
specifying  adjective.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  talk  of 
a Chinese  will  be  like  the  testimony  of  a witness  in  an  English 
court,  who  described  a fight  in  the  following  terms : “ He’d  a 
stick,  and  he’d  a stick,  and  he  w’acked  he,  and  he  w’acked 
he,  and  if  he’d  a w’acked  he  as  hard  as  he  w’acked  he,  he’d  a 
killed  he,  and  not  he  he.” 

“ Why  did  you  not  come  when  you  were  called  ? ” you 
venture  to  inquire  of  a particularly  negligent  servant.  “Not 
on  account  of  any  reason,”  he  answers,  with  what  appears  to 
be  frank  precision.  The  same  state  of  mental  confusion  leads 
to  a great  variety  of  acts,  often  embarrassing,  and  to  a well- 
ordered  Occidental  intellect  always  irritating.  The  cook 
makes  it  a matter  of  routine  practice  to  use  up  the  last  of 
whatever  there  may  be  in  his  charge,  and  then  serves  the  next 
meal  minus  some  invariable  concomitant.  When  asked  what 
he  means  by  it,  he  answers  ingenuously  that  there  ivas  no  more. 
“ Then  why  did  you  not  ask  for  more  in  time?  ” “ I did  not 

ask  for  any  more,”  is  his  satisfactory  explanation.  The  man 
to  whom  you  have  paid  a sum  of  cash  in  settlement  of  his 
account,  going  to  the  trouble  of  unlocking  your  safe  and 
making  change  with  scrupulous  care,  sits  talking  for  “ an  old 
half-day  ” on  miscellaneous  subjects,  and  then  remarks  with 


INTELLECTUAL  TURBIDITY 


87 


nonchalance,  “ I have  still  another  account  besides  this  one.” 
“ But  why  did  you  not  tell  me  when  I had  the  safe  open,  so 
that  I could  do  it  all  at  once  ? ” “ Oh,  I thought  that  account 
and  this  one  had  nothing  to  do  with  each  other!”  In  the 
same  way  a patient  in  a dispensary  who  has  taken  a liberal 
allowance  of  the  time  of  the  physician,  retires  to  the  waiting- 
room,  and  when  the  door  is  next  opened  advances  to  re-enter. 
Upon  being  told  that  his  case  has  been  disposed  of,  he  ob- 
serves, with  delightful  simplicity,  “ But  I have  got  another 
different  disease  besides  that  one!” 

An  example  of  what  seems  to  us  immeasurable  folly,  is  the 
common  Chinese  habit  of  postponing  the  treatment  of  dis- 
eases because  the  patient  happens  to  be  busy,  or  because  the 
remedy  would  cost  something.  It  is  often  considered  cheaper 
to  undergo  severe  and  repeated  attacks  of  intermittent  fever, 
than  to  pay  ten  cash — about  one  cent — for  a dose  of  quinia, 
morally  certain  to  cure.  We  have  seen  countless  cases  of  the 
gravest  diseases  sometimes  nourished  to  the  point  where  they 
became  fatal  simply  to  save  time,  when  they  might  have  been 
cured  gratuitously. 

A man  living  about  half  a mile  from  a foreign  hospital, 
while  away  from  home  contracted  some  eye  trouble,  and 
waited  in  agony  for  more  than  two  weeks  after  his  return 
before  coming  for  treatment,  hoping  each  day  that  the  pain 
would  stop,  instead  of  which,  one  eye  was  totally  destroyed 
by  a corneal  ulcer. 

Another  patient,  who  had  been  under  daily  treatment  for  a 
deeply  ulcerated  neck,  mentioned  on  the  eighteenth  day  that 
his  leg  prevented  his  sleeping.  Upon  examination  he  was 
found  to  have  there  another  ulcer  about  the  size  and  depth 
of  a teacup!  When  his  neck  was  well  he  was  intending  to 
speak  about  his  leg! 

Many  such  phenomena  of  Chinese  life  may  serve  to  remind 
one  of  a remark  in  one  of  the  novels  of  Charles  Reade,  that 


88 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


“ Mankind  are  not  lacking  in  intelligence,  but  they  have  one 
intellectual  defect — they  are  Muddleheads ! ” 

A Chinese  education  by  no  means  fits  its  possessors  to 
grasp  a subject  in  a comprehensive  and  practical  manner.  It 
is  popularly  supposed  in  Western  lands  that  there  are  certain 
preachers  of  whom  it  can  be  truthfully  affirmed  that  if  their 
text  had  the  smallpox,  the  sermon  would  not  catch  it.  The 
same  phenomenon  is  found  among  the  Chinese  in  forms  of 
peculiar  flagrance.  Chinese  dogs  do  not  as  a rule  take  kindly 
to  the  pursuit  of  wolves,  and  when  a dog  is  seen  running  after 
a wolf  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  dog  and  the  wolf  will  be 
moving,  if  not  in  opposite  directions,  at  least  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  Not  without  resemblance  to  this  oblique  chase, 
is  the  pursuit  by  a Chinese  speaker  of  a perpetually  retreating 
subject.  He  scents  it  often,  and  now  and  then  he  seems  to 
be  on  the  point  of  overtaking  it,  but  he  retires  at  length,  much 
wearied,  without  having  come  across  it  in  any  part  of  his 
course. 

China  is  the  land  of  sharp  contrasts,  the  very  rich  and  the 
wretchedly  poor,  the  highly  educated  and  the  utterly  ignorant, 
living  side  by  side.  Those  who  are  both  very  poor  and  very 
ignorant,  as  is  the  fate  of  millions,  have  indeed  so  narrow  a 
horizon  that  intellectual  turbidity  is  compulsory.  Their  ex- 
istence is  merely  that  of  a frog  in  a well,  to  which  even  the 
heavens  appear  only  as  a strip  of  darkness.  Ten  miles  from 
their  native  place  many  such  persons  have  never  been,  and 
they  have  no  conception  of  any  conditions  of  life  other  than 
those  by  which  they  have  always  been  surrounded.  In  many 
of  them  even  that  instinctive  curiosity  common  to  all  races 
seems  dormant  or  blighted.  Many  Chinese,  who  know  that 
a foreigner  has  come  to  live  within  a mile  from  their  homes, 
never  think  to  inquire  where  he  came  from,  who  he  is,  or  what 
he  wants.  They  know  how  to  struggle  for  an  existence,  and 
they  know  nothing  else.  They  do  not  know  whether  they 


INTELLECTUAL  TURBIDITY 


89 


have  three  souls,  as  is  currently  supposed,  or  one,  or  none, 
and  so  long  as  the  matter  has  no  relation  to  the  price  of  grain, 
they  do  not  see  that  it  is  of  any  consequence  whatever.  They 
believe  in  a future  life  in  which  the  bad  will  be  turned  into 
dogs  and  insects,  and  they  also  believe  in  annihilation  pure 
and  simple,  in  which  the  body  becomes  dirt,  and  the  soul — if 
there  be  one — fades  into  the  air.  They  are  the  ultimate  out- 
come of  the  forces  which  produce  what  is  in  Western  lands 
called  a “ practical  man,”  whose  life  consists  of  two  compart- 
ments, a stomach  and  a cash-bag.  Such  a man  is  the  true 
positivist,  for  he  cannot  be  made  to  comprehend  anything 
which  he  does  not  see  or  hear,  and  of  causes  as  such  he  has 
no  conception  whatever.  Life  is  to  him  a mere  series  of  facts, 
mostly  disagreeable  facts,  and  as  for  anything  beyond,  he  is 
at  once  an  atheist,  a polytheist,  and  an  agnostic.  An  occa- 
sional prostration  to  he  knows  not  what,  or  perhaps  an  offer- 
ing of  food  to  he  knows  not  whom,  suffices  to  satisfy  the 
instinct  of  dependence,  but  whether  this  instinct  finds  even 
this  expression  will  depend  largely  upon  what  is  the  custom 
of  those  about  him.  In  him  the  physical  element  of  the  life 
of  man  has  alone  been  nourished,  to  the  utter  exclusion  of  the 
psychical  and  the  spiritual.  The  only  method  by  which  such 
beings  can  be  rescued  from  their  torpor  is  by  a transfusion  of 
a new  life,  which  shall  reveal  to  them  the  sublime  truth  uttered 
by  the  ancient  patriarch,  “ There  is  a spirit  in  man,”  for  only 
thus  is  it  that  “ the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  them 
understanding.” 


CHAPTER  XI. 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  NERVES. 

IT  is  a very  significant  aspect  of  modern  civilisation  which 
is  expressed  in  the  different  uses  of  the  word  “nervous.” 
Its  original  meaning  is  “possessing  nerve;  sinewy;  strong; 
vigorous.”  One  of  its  derivative  meanings,  and  the  one  which 
we  by  far  most  frequently  meet,  is,  “ Having  the  nerves  weak 
or  diseased;  subject  to,  or  suffering  from,  undue  excitement 
of  the  nerves ; easily  excited ; weakly.”  The  varied  and  com- 
plex phraseology  by  which  the  peculiar  phases  of  nervous 
diseases  are  expressed  has  become  by  this  time  familiar  in  our 
ears  as  household  words.  There  is  no  doubt  that  civilisation, 
as  exhibited  in  its  modern  form,  tends  to  undue  nervous  ex- 
citement, and  that  nervous  diseases  are  relatively  more  com- 
mon than  they  were  a century  ago. 

But  what  we  have  now  to  say  does  not  concern  those  who 
are  specially  subject  to  nervous  diseases,  but  to  the  general 
mass  of  Occidentals,  who,  while  not  in  any  specific  condition 
of  ill  health,  are  yet  continually  reminded  in  a great  variety  of 
ways  that  their  nervous  systems  are  a most  conspicuous  part 
of  their  organisation.  We  allude,  in  short,  to  people  who  are 
“ nervous,”  and  we  understand  this  term  to  include  all  our 
readers.  To  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  at  least,  it  seems  a matter 
of  course  that  those  who  live  in  an  age  of  steam  and  of  elec- 
tricity must  necessarily  be  in  a different  condition,  as  to  their 
nerves,  from  those  who  lived  in  the  old  slow  days  of  sailing- 

90 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  NERVES 


9* 


packets  and  of  mail-coaches.  Ours  is  an  age  of  extreme 
activity.  It  is  an  age  of  rush.  There  is  no  leisure  so  much 
as  to  eat,  and  the  nerves  are  kept  in  a state  of  constant  ten- 
sion, with  results  which  are  sufficiently  well  known. 

Business  men  in  our  time  have  an  eager,  restless  air  (at  least 
those  who  do  their  business  in  Occidental  lands),  as  if  they 
were  in  momentary  expectation  of  a telegram — as  they  often 
are — the  contents  of  which  may  affect  their  destiny  in  some 
fateful  way.  We  betray  this  unconscious  state  of  mind  in  a 
multitude  of  acts.  We  cannot  sit  still,  but  we  must  fidget. 
We  finger  our  pencils  while  we  are  talking,  as  if  we  ought  at 
this  particular  instant  to  be  rapidly  inditing  something  ere  it 
be  forever  too  late.  We  rub  our  hands  together  as  if  prepar- 
ing for  some  serious  task,  which  is  about  to  absorb  all  our 
energies.  We  twirl  our  thumbs,  we  turn  our  heads  with  the 
swift  motion  of  the  wild  animal  which  seems  to  fear  that 
something  dangerous  may  have  been  left  unseen.  We  have 
a sense  that  there  is  something  which  we  ought  to  be  doing 
now,  and  into  which  we  shall  proceed  at  once  to  plunge  as 
soon  as  we  shall  have  despatched  six  other  affairs  of  even 
more  pressing  importance.  The  effect  of  overworking  our 
nerves  shows  itself  not  mainly  in  such  affections  as  “ fiddler’s 
cramp,”  “ telegrapher’s  cramp,”  “ writer’s  cramp,”  and  the 
like,  but  in  a general  tension.  We  do  not  sleep  as  we  once 
did,  either  as  regards  length  of  time  or  soundness  of  rest. 
We  are  wakened  by  slight  causes,  and  often  by  those  which 
are  exasperatingly  trivial,  such  as  the  twitter  of  a bird  on  a 
tree,  a chance  ray  of  light  straggling  into  our  darkened  rooms, 
the  motion  of  a shutter  in  the  breeze,  the  sound  of  a voice, 
and  when  sleep  is  once  interrupted  it  is  banished.  We  have 
taken  our  daily  life  to  rest  with  us,  and  the  result  is  that  we 
have  no  real  rest.  In  an  age  when  it  has  become  a kind  of 
aphorism  that  a bank  never  succeeds  until  it  has  a president 
who  takes  it  to  bed  with  him,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that, 


92 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


while  the  shareholders  reap  the  advantage,  it  is  bad  for  the 
president. 

We  have  mentioned  thus  fully  these  familiar  facts  of  our 
everyday  Western  life,  to  point  the  great  contrast  to  them 
which  one  cannot  help  seeing,  and  feeling  too,  when  he  begins 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  Chinese.  It  is  not  very  com- 
mon to  dissect  dead  Chinese,  though  it  has  doubtless  been 
done,  but  we  do  not  hear  of  any  reason  for  supposing  that  the 
nervous  anatomy  of  the  “dark-haired  race  ” differs  in  any 
essential  respect  from  that  of  the  Caucasian.  But  though  the 
nerves  of  a Chinese  as  compared  with  those  of  the  Occidental 
may  be,  as  the  geometricians  say,  “ similar  and  similarly  situ- 
ated,” nothing  is  plainer  than  that  they  are  nerves  of  a very 
different  sort  from  those  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

It  seems  to  make  no  particular  difference  to  a Chinese  how 
long  he  remains  in  one  position.  He  will  write  all  day  like 
an  automaton.  If  he  is  a handicraftsman,  he  will  stand  in 
one  place  from  dewy  morn  till  dusky  eve,  working  away  at 
his  weaving,  his  gold-beating,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  and  do  it 
every  day  without  any  variation  in  the  monotony,  and  appar- 
ently with  no  special  consciousness  that  there  is  any  monotony 
to  be  varied.  In  the  same  way  Chinese  school-children  are 
subjected  to  an  amount  of  confinement,  unrelieved  by  any 
recesses  or  change  of  work,  which  would  soon  drive  Western 
pupils  to  the  verge  of  insanity.  The  very  infants  in  arms, 
instead  of  squirming  and  wriggling  as  our  children  begin  to  do 
almost  as  soon  as  they  are  born,  lie  as  impassive  as  so  many 
mud  gods.  And  at  a more  advanced  age,  when  Western 
children  would  vie  with  the  monkey  in  its  wildest  antics, 
Chinese  children  will  often  stand,  sit,  or  squat  in  the  same 
posture  for  a great  length  of  time. 

It  seems  to  be  a physiological  fact  that  to  the  Chinese 
exercise  is  superfluous.  They  cannot  understand  the  desire 
which  seems  to  possess  all  classes  of  foreigners  alike,  to  walk 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  NERVES 


93 


when  there  is  no  desire  to  go  anywhere ; much  less  can  they 
comprehend  the  impulse  to  race  over  the  country  at  the  risk 
of  one’s  life,  in  such  a singular  performance  as  that  known  as 
a “ paper  hunt,”  representing  “ hare  and  hounds  ” ; or  the  mo- 
tive which  impels  men  of  good  social  position  to  stand  all  the 
afternoon  in  the  sun,  trying  to  knockt  a base-ball  to  some  spot 
where  it  shall  be  inaccessible  to  some  other  persons,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  struggling  to  catch  the  same  ball  with  celerity, 
so  as  to  “ kill  ” another  person  on  his  “ base  ” ! A Cantonese 
teacher  asked  a servant  about  a foreign  lady  whom  he  had 
seen  playing  tennis : “ How  much  is  she  paid  for  rushing 
about  like  that?”  On  being  told  “Nothing,”  he  would  not 
believe  it.  Why  any  mortal  should  do  acts  like  this,  when  he 
is  abundantly  able  to  hire  coolies  to  do  them  for  him,  is,  we 
repeat,  essentially  incomprehensible  to  a Chinese,  nor  is  it 
any  more  comprehensible  to  him  because  he  has  heard  it 
explained. 

In  the  item  of  sleep,  the  Chinese  establishes  the  same  differ- 
ence between  himself  and  the  Occidental  as  in  the  directions 
already  specified.  Generally  speaking,  he  is  able  to  sleep  any- 
where. None  of  the  trifling  disturbances  which  drive  us  to 
despair  annoy  him.  With  a brick  for  a pillow,  he  can  lie 
down  on  his  bed  of  stalks  or  mud  bricks  or  rattan  and  sleep 
the  sleep  of  the  just,  with  no  reference  to  the  rest  of  creation. 
He  does  not  want  his  room  darkened,  nor  does  he  require 
others  to  be  still.  The  “ infant  crying  in  the  night  ” may 
continue  to  cry  for  all  he  cares,  for  it  does  not  disturb  him. 
In  some  regions  the  entire  population  seem  to  fall  asleep,  as 
by  a common  instinct  (like  that  of  the  hibernating  bear),  dur- 
ing the  first  two  hours  of  summer  afternoons,  and  they  do  this 
with  regularity,  no  matter  where  they  may  be.  At  two  hours 
after  noon  the  universe  at  such  seasons  is  as  still  as  at  two 
hours  after  midnight.  In  the  case  of  most  working-people, 
at  least,  and  also  in  that  of  many  others,  position  in  sleep  is 


94 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  no  sort  of  consequence.  It  would  be  easy  to  raise  in  China 
an  army  of  a million  men — nay,  of  ten  millions — tested  by 
competitive  examination  as  to  their  capacity  to  go  to  sleep 
across  three  wheelbarrows,  with  head  downwards,  like  a spider, 
their  mouths  wide  open  and  a fly  inside! 

Beside  this,  we  must  take  account  of  the  fact  that  in  China 
breathing  seems  to  be  optional.  There  is  nowhere  any  venti- 
lation worth  the  name,  except  when  a typhoon  blows  the  roof 
from  a dwelling,  or  when  a famine  compels  the  owner  to  pull 
the  house  down  to  sell  the  timbers.  We  hear  much  of  Chinese 
overcrowding,  but  overcrowding  is  the  normal  condition  of 
the  Chinese,  and  they  do  not  appear  to  be  inconvenienced  by 
it  at  all,  or  in  so  trifling  a degree  that  it  scarcely  deserves 
mention.  If  they  had  an  outfit  of  Anglo-Saxon  nerves,  they 
would  be  as  wretched  as  we  frequently  suppose  them  to  be. 

The  same  freedom  from  the  tyranny  of  nerves  is  exhibited 
in  the  Chinese  endurance  of  physical  pain.  Those  who  have 
any  acquaintance  with  the  operations  in  hospitals  in  China, 
know  how  common,  or  rather  how  almost  universal,  it  is  for 
the  patients  to  bear  without  flinching  a degree  of  pain  from 
which  the  stoutest  of  us  would  shrink  in  terror.  It  would  be 
easy  to  expand  this  topic  alone  into  an  essay,  but  we  must 
pass  it  by,  merely  calling  attention  to  a remark  of  George 
Eliot’s,  in  one  of  her  letters.  “ The  highest  calling  and  elec- 
tion,” she  says — irritated,  no  doubt,  by  theological  formulas 
for  which  she  had  no  taste — “is  to  do  without  opium,  and  to 
bear  pain  with  clear-eyed  endurance.”  If  she  is  right,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  most  Chinese,  at  least,  have  made 
their  calling  and  election  5fure. 

It  is  a remark  of  Mrs.  Browning’s,  that  “ Observation  with- 
out sympathy  is  torture.”  So  it  doubtless  is  to  persons  of  a 
sensitive  organisation  like  the  distinguished  poetess,  as  well 
as  to  a multitude  of  others  of  her  race.  An  Occidental  does 
not  like  to  be  watched,  especially  if  he  is  doing  any  delicate 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  N ERNES 


95 


or  difficult  work.  But  perhaps  a Chinese  does  his  best  work 
under  close  observation.  We  all  of  us  grow  rapidly  weary  of 
being  stared  at  by  the  swarms  of  curious  Chinese  who  crowd 
about  a foreigner,  in  every  spot  to  which  foreigners  do  not 
commonly  resort.  We  often  declare  that  we  shall  “ go  wild  ” 
if  we  cannot  in  some  way  disperse  those  who  are  subjecting 
us  to  no  other  injury  than  that  of  unsympathetic  observation. 
But  to  the  Chinese  this  instinctive  feeling  of  the  Occidental  is 
utterly  incomprehensible.  He  does  not  care  how  many  people 
see  him,  nor  when,  nor  for  how  great  a length  of  time,  and 
he  cannot  help  suspecting  that  there  must  be  something  wrong 
about  persons  who  so  vehemently  resent  mere  inspection. 

It  is  not  alone  when  he  sleeps  that  an  Occidental  requires 
quiet,  but  most  of  all  when  he  is  sick.  Then,  if  never  before, 
he  demands  freedom  from  the  annoyance  of  needless  noises. 
Friends,  nurses,  physicians,  all  conspire  to  insure  this  most 
necessary  condition  for  recovery  ; and  if  recovery  is  beyond 
hope,  then  more  than  ever  is  the  sufferer  allowed  to  be  in  as 
great  peace  as  circumstances  admit.  Nothing  in  the  habits 
of  the  Chinese  presents  a greater  contrast  to  those  of  Western- 
ers, than  the  behaviour  of  the  Chinese  to  one  another  in  cases 
of  sickness.  The  notification  of  the  event  is  a signal  for  all 
varieties  of  raids  upon  the  patient  from  every  quarter,  in  num- 
bers proportioned  to  the  gravity  of  the  disease.  Quiet  is  not 
for  a moment  to  be  thought  of,  and,  strange  to  say,  no  one 
appears  to  desire  it.  The  bustle  attendant  upon  the  arrival 
and  departure  of  so  many  guests,  the  work  of  entertaining 
them,  the  wailings  of  those  who  fear  that  a death  is  soon  to 
take  place,  and  especially  the  pandemonium  made  by  priests, 
priestesses,  and  others  to  drive  away  the  malignant  spirits, 
constitute  an  environment  from  which  death  would  be  to  most 
Europeans  a happy  escape.  Occidentals  cannot  fail  to  sym- 
pathise with  the  distinguished  French  lady  who  sent  word  to 
a caller  that  she  “ begged  to  be  excused,  as  she  was  engaged 


96 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


in  dying.”  In  China  such  an  excuse  would  never  be  offered, 
nor,  if  it  were  offered,  would  it  be  accepted. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  the  worries  and  anxieties  to  which 
humanity  is  everywhere  subjected  in  this  distracted  world. 
The  Chinese  are  not  only  as  accessible  to  these  evils  as  any 
other  people,  but  far  more  so.  The  conditions  of  their  social 
life  are  such  that  in  any  given  region  there  is  a large  propor- 
tion who  are  always  on  the  ragged  edge  of  ruin.  A slight 
diminution  of  the  rainfall  means  starvation  to  hundreds  of 
thousands.  A slight  increase  in  the  rainfall  means  the  devas- 
tation of  their  homes  by  destructive  floods,  for  which  there  is 
no  known  remedy.  No  Chinese  is  safe  from  the  entanglement 
of  a lawsuit,  which,  though  he  be  perfectly  innocent,  may  work 
his  ruin.  Many  of  these  disasters  are  not  only  seen,  but  their 
stealthy  and  steady  approach  is  perceived,  like  the  gradual 
shrinking  of  the  iron  shroud.  To  us  nothing  is  more  dreadful 
than  the  momentary  expectation  of  a calamity  which  cannot 
be  forefended,  and  which  may  bring  all  that  is  horrible  in  its 
train.  The  Chinese  face  these  things,  perhaps  because  they 
seem  to  be  inevitable,  with  a “ clear-eyed  endurance,”  which 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  race.  Those 
who  have  witnessed  the  perfectly  quiet  starvation  of  millions 
in  times  of  devastating  famine  will  be  able  to  understand  what 
is  here  meant.  To  be  fully  appreciated,  it  must  be  seen,  but 
seen  on  no  matter  what  scale,  it  is  as  difficult  for  an  Occi- 
dental really  to  understand  it  as  it  is  for  a Chinese  truly  to 
understand  the  idea  of  personal  and  social  liberty,  which  the 
Anglo-Saxon  has  inherited  and  developed. 

In  whatever  aspect  we  regard  them,  the  Chinese  are  and 
must  continue  to  be  to  us  more  or  less  a puzzle,  but  we  shall 
make  no  approach  to  comprehending  them  until  we  have  it 
settled  firmly  in  our  minds  that,  as  compared  with  us,  they  are 
gifted  with  the  “ absence  of  nerves.”  What  the  bearing  of 
this  pregnant  proposition  may  be  on  the  future  impact  of  this 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  N ERNES 


97 


race  with  our  own — an  impact  likely  to  become  more  violent 
as  the  years  go  by — we  shall  not  venture  to  conjecture.  We 
have  come  to  believe,  at  least  in  general,  in  the  survival  of  the 
most  fit.  Which  is  the  best  adapted  to  survive  in  the  strug- 
gles of  the  twentieth  century,  the  “ nervous  ” European,  or  the 
tireless,  all-pervading,  and  phlegmatic  Chinese? 


CHAPTER  XII. 


CONTEMPT  FOR  FOREIGNERS. 

IT  is  difficult  for  the  European  traveller  who  visits  the  city 
of  Canton  for  the  first  time,  to  realise  the  fact  that  this 
Chinese  emporium  has  enjoyed  regular  intercourse  with  Euro- 
peans for  a period  of  more  than  three  hundred  and  sixty 
years.  During  much  the  greater  part  of  that  time  there  was 
very  little  in  the  conduct  of  any  Western  nation  in  its  dealings 
with  the  Chinese  of  which  we  have  any  reason  to  be  proud. 
The  normal  attitude  of  the  Chinese  towards  the  people  of 
other  lands  who  chose  to  come  to  China  for  any  purpose 
whatever,  has  been  the  attitude  of  the  ancient  Greeks  to  every 
nation  not  Grecian,  considering  and  treating  them  as  “bar- 
barians.” It  is  only  since  i860,  by  a special  clause  in  the 
treaties,  that  a character  which  signifies  “barbarian,”  and 
which  the  Chinese  had  been  in  the  habit  of  employing  in  offi- 
cial documents  as  synonymous  with  the  word  “ foreign,”  was 
disallowed. 

It  must  always  be  remembered  in  connection  with  the  be- 
haviour of  the  Chinese  towards  outside  nations  of  the  West, 
that  the  Chinese  had  for  ages  been  surrounded  only  by  the 
most  conspicuous  inferiority,  and  had  thus  been  flattered  in 
the  most  dangerous  because  the  most  plausible  and  therefore 
the  most  effective,  way.  Finding,  as  they  did,  that  the  for- 
eigners with  whom  they  came  into  contact  could  be  alternately 
cajoled  and  bullied  into  conforming  to  the  wishes  of  the  Chi- 
nese, the  latter  were  but  confirmed  in  their  conviction  of  their 

98 


CONTEMPT  FOR  FOREIGNERS 


99 


own  unspeakable  superiority,  and  invariably  acted  upon  this 
theory,  until  compelled  by  the  capture  of  Peking  to  do  other- 
wise. Since  that  time,  although  only  a generation  has  passed 
away,  great  changes  have  come  over  China,  and  it  might  be 
supposed  that  now  at  length  foreign  civilisation  and  foreigners 
would  be  appreciated  by  the  Chinese  at  their  full  value.  No 
very  extended  or  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Chinese  peo- 
ple is  needed,  however,  to  convince  any  candid  observer  that 
the  present  normal  attitude  of  the  Chinese  mind,  official  and 
unofficial,  towards  foreigners,  is  not  one  of  respect.  If  the 
Chinese  do  not  feel  for  us  an  actual  contempt,  they  do  feel 
condescension,  and  often  unintentionally  manifest  it.  It  is 
this  phenomenon  with  which  we  have  now  to  deal. 

The  first  peculiarity  which  the  Chinese  notice  in  regard  to 
foreigners  is  their  dress,  and  in  this  we  think  no  one  will  claim 
that  we  have  much  of  which  we  can  be  proud.  It  is  true  that 
all  varieties  of  the  Oriental  costume  seem  to  us  to  be  clumsy, 
pendulous,  and  restrictive  of  “personal  liberty,”  but  that  is 
because  our  requirements  in  the  line  of  active  motion  are 
utterly  different  from  those  of  any  Oriental  people.  When 
we  consider  the  Oriental  modes  of  dress  as  adapted  to  Orien- 
tals, we  cannot  help  recognising  the  undoubted  fact  that  for 
Orientals  this  dress  is  exactly  suited.  But  when  Orientals, 
and  especially  Chinese,  examine  our  costume,  they  find  noth- 
ing whatever  to  admire,  and  much  to  excite  criticism,  not  to 
say  ridicule.  It  is  a postulate  in  Oriental  dress  that  it  shall 
be  loose,  and  shall  be  draped  in  such  a way  as  to  conceal  the 
contour  of  the  body.  A Chinese  gentleman  clad  in  a short 
frock  would  not  venture  to  show  himself  in  public,  but  num- 
bers of  foreigners  are  continually  seen  in  every  foreign  settle- 
ment in  China,  clad  in  what  are  appropriately  styled  “ monkey 
jackets.”  The  foreign  sack-coat,  the  double-breasted  frock- 
coat  (not  a single  button  of  which  may  be  in  use),  and  espe- 
cially the  hideous  and  amorphous  abortion  called  a “ dress- 


100 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


coat,”  are  all  equally  incomprehensible  to  the  Chinese,  partic- 
ularly as  some  of  these  garments  do  not  pretend  to  cover  the 
chest,  which  is  the  most  exposed  part  of  the  body,  made  still 
more  exposed  by  the  unaccountable  deficiencies  of  a vest  cut 
away  so  as  to  display  a strip  of  linen.  Every  foreigner  in 
China  is  seen  to  have  two  buttons  securely  fastened  to  the  tail 
of  his  coat,  where  there  is  never  anything  to  button,  and  where 
they  are  as  little  ornamental  as  useful. 

If  the  dress  of  the  male  foreigner  appears  to  the  average 
Chinese  to  be  essentially  irrational  and  ridiculous,  that  of  the 
foreign  ladies  is  far  more  so.  It  violates  Chinese  ideas  of 
propriety,  not  to  say  of  decency,  in  a great  variety  of  ways. 
Taken  in  connection  with  that  freedom  of  intercourse  between 
the  sexes  which  is  the  accompaniment  of  Occidental  civilisa- 
tion, it  is  not  strange  that  the  Chinese,  who  judge  only  from 
traditional  standards  of  fitness,  should  thoroughly  misunder- 
stand and  grossly  misconstrue  what  they  see. 

Foreign  ignorance  of  the  Chinese  language  is  a fertile  occa- 
sion for  a feeling  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese. 
It  makes  no  difference  that  a foreigner  may  be  able  to  con- 
verse fluently  in  every  language  of  modern  Europe,  if  he  can- 
not understand  what  is  said  to  him  by  an  ignorant  Chinese 
coolie,  the  coolie  will  despise  him  in  consequence.  It  is  true 
that  in  so  doing  the  coolie  will  only  still  further  illustrate  his 
own  ignorance,  but  his  feeling  of  superiority  is  not  the  less 
real  on  account  of  its  inadequate  basis.  If  the  foreigner  is 
struggling  with  his  environment,  and  endeavouring  to  master 
the  language  of  the  people,  he  will  be  constantly  stung  by  the 
air  of  disdain  with  which  even  his  own  servants  will  remark 
in  an  audible  “ aside,”  “ Oh,  he  does  not  understand!  ” when 
the  sole  obstacle  to  understanding  lies  in  the  turbid  statement 
of  the  Chinese  himself.  But  the  Chinese  does  not  recognise 
this  fact,  nor  if  he  should  do  so  would  it  diminish  his  sense  of 
innate  superiority.  This  general  state  of  things  continues  in- 


CONTEMPT  FOR  FOREIGNERS 


ior 


definitely  for  all  students  of  Chinese,  for  no  matter  how  much 
one  knows,  there  is  always  a continental  area  which  he  does 
not  know.  It  seems  to  be  a general  experience,  though  not 
necessarily  a universal  one,  that  the  foreigner  in  China,  after 
the  preliminary  stages  of  his  experience  are  passed,  gets  little 
credit  for  anything  which  he  happens  to  know,  but  rather  dis- 
credit for  the  things  which  he  does  not  know.  The  Chinese 
estimate  of  the  value  of  the  knowledge  which  foreigners  dis- 
play of  the  Chinese  language  and  Chinese  literature  is  fre- 
quently susceptible  of  illustration  by  a remark  of  Dr.  John- 
son’s in  regard  to  woman’s  preaching,  which  he  declared  to 
be  like  a dog’s  walking  on  its  hind  legs — it  is  not  well  done, 
but  then  it  is  a surprise  to  find  it  done  at  all! 

Foreign  ignorance  of  the  customs  of  the  Chinese  is  another 
cause  of  a feeling  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese. 
That  any  one  should  be  ignorant  of  what  they  have  always 
known,  seems  to  them  to  be  almost  incredible. 

The  fact  that  a foreigner  frequently  does  not  know  when 
he  has  been  snubbed  by  indirect  Chinese  methods,  leads  the 
Chinese  to  look  upon  their  unconscious  victim  with  conscious 
contempt.  Scornful  indifference  to  what  “ the  natives  ” may 
think  of  us,  brings  its  own  appropriate  and  sufficient  punishment. 

Many  Chinese  unconsciously  adopt  towards  foreigners  an 
air  of  amused  interest,  combined  with  depreciation,  like  that 
with  which  Mr.  Littimer  regarded  David  Copperfield,  as  if 
mentally  saying  perpetually,  “So  young,  sir,  so  young!” 
This  does  not  apply  equally  to  all  stages  of  one’s  experience 
in  China,  for  experience  accumulates  more  or  less  rapidly  for 
shrewd  observers,  as  foreigners  in  China  are  not  unlikely  to 
be.  Still,  whatever  the  extent  of  one’s  experience,  there  are 
multitudes  of  details,  in  regard  to  social  matters,  of  which 
one  must  necessarily  be  ignorant  for  the  reason  that  he  has 
never  heard  of  them,  and  there  must  be  a first  time  for  every 
acquisition. 


102 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Foreign  inability  to  do  what  any  ordinary  Chinese  can  do 
with  the  greatest  ease,  leads  the  Chinese  to  look  down  upon 
us.  We  cannot  eat  what  they  eat,  we  cannot  bear  the  sun, 
we  cannot  sleep  in  a crowd,  in  a noise,  nor  without  air  to 
breathe.  We  cannot  scull  one  of  their  boats,  nor  can  we  cry 
“ Yi!  yi!”  to  one  of  their  mule-teams  in  such  a way  that  the 
animals  will  do  anything  which  we  desire.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  artillery  department  of  the  British  army,  on  the  way 
to  Peking  in  i860,  was  rendered  perfectly  helpless  near  Ho- 
hsi-wu  by  the  desertion  of  the. native  carters,  for  not  a man  in 
the  British  forces  was  able  to  persuade  the  Chinese  animals  to 
take  a single  step! 

Inability  to  conform  to  Chinese  ideas  and  ideals  in  cere- 
mony, as  well  as  in  what  we  consider  more  important  matters, 
causes  the  Chinese  to  feel  a thinly  disguised  contempt  for  a 
race  whom  they  think  will  not  and  cannot  be  made  to  under- 
stand “ propriety.”  It  is  not  that  a foreigner  cannot  make  a 
bow,  but  he  generally  finds  it  hard  to  make  a Chinese  bow  in 
a Chinese  way,  and  the  difficulty  is  as  much  moral  as  physical. 
The  foreigner  feels  a contempt  for  the  code  of  ceremonials, 
often  frivolous  in  their  appearance,  and  he  has  no  patience, 
if  he  has  the  capacity,  to  spend  twenty  minutes  in  a polite 
scuffle,  the  termination  of  which  is  foreseen  by  both  sides  with 
absolute  certainty.  The  foreigner  does  not  wish  to  spend  his 
time  in  talking  empty  nothings  for  "an  old  half-day.”  To 
him  time  is  money,  but  it  is  very  far  from  being  so  to  a Chi- 
nese, for  in  China  every  one  has  an  abundance  of  time,  and 
very  few  have  any  money.  No  Chinese  has  ever  yet  learned 
that  when  he  kills  time  it  is  well  to  make  certain  that  it  is 
time  which  belongs  to  him,  and  not  that  of  some  one  else. 

With  this  predisposition  to  dispense  as  much  as  possible 
with  superfluous  ceremony  because  it  is  distasteful,  and  be- 
cause the  time  which  it  involves  can  be  used  more  agreeably 
in  other  ways,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  foreigner,  even  in  his 


CONTEMPT  FOR  FOREIGNERS 


103 


own  eyes,  makes  but  a poor  figure  in  comparison  with  a cere- 
monious Chinese.  Compare  the  dress,  bearings,  and  action 
of  a Chinese  official,  his  long,  flowing  robes  and  his  graceful 
motions,  with  the  awkward  genuflections  of  his  foreign  visitor. 
It  requires  all  the  native  politeness  of  the  Chinese  to  prevent 
them  from  laughing  outright  at  the  contrast.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  must  be  noted  that  nothing  contributes  so  effectively  to 
the  instinctive  Chinese  contempt  for  the  foreigner  as  the  evi- 
dent disregard  which  the  latter  feels  for  that  official  display  so 
dear  to  the  Oriental.  What  must  have  been  the  inner  thought 
of  the  Chinese  who  were  told  that  they  were  to  behold  the 
" great  American  Emperor,”  and  who  saw  General  Grant  in 
citizen’s  costume  with  a cigar  in  his  mouth,  walking  along  the 
open  street?  Imagine  a foreign  Consul,  who  ranks  with  a 
Chinese  Taotai,  making  a journey  to  a provincial  capital  to 
interview  the  Governor,  in  order  to  settle  an  international  dis- 
pute. Thousands  are  gathered  on  the  city  wall  to  watch  the 
procession  of  the  great  foreign  magnate,  a procession  which  is 
found  to  consist  of  two  carts  and  riding  horses,  the  attendants 
of  the  Consul  being  an  interpreter,  a Chinese  acting  as  mes- 
senger, and  another  as  cook!  Is  it  any  wonder  that  Orien- 
tals, gazing  on  such  a scene,  should  look  with  a curiosity 
which  changes  first  to  indifference  and  then  to  contempt  ? 

The  particulars  in  which  we  consider  ourselves  to  be  un- 
questionably superior  to  the  Chinese  do  not  make  upon  them 
the  impression  which  we  should  expect,  and  which  we  could 
desire.  They  recognise  the  fact  that  we  are  their  superiors 
in  mechanical  contrivances,  but  many  of  these  contrivances 
are  regarded  in  the  light  in  which  we  should  look  upon  feats 
of  sleight-of-hand — curious,  inexplicable,  and  useless.  Our 
results  appear  to  them  to  be  due  to  some  kind  of  supernatural 
power,  and  it  is  remembered  that  Confucius  refused  to  talk  of 
magic.  How  profoundly  indifferent  the  Chinese  are  to  the 
wonders  of  steam  and  electricity  practically  applied,  an  army 


104 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  disappointed  contractors  who  have  been  in  China  have 
discovered.  With  few  exceptions,  the  Chinese  do  not  wish 
(though  they  may  be  forced  to  take)  foreign  models  for  any- 
thing whatever.  They  care  nothing  for  sanitation,  for  ventila- 
tion, nor  for  physiology.  They  would  like  some,  but  by  no 
means  all,  of  the  results  of  Western  progress  without  submit- 
ting to  Western  methods,  but  rather  than  submit  to  Western 
methods  they  will  cheerfully  forego  the  results.  Whatever 
has  a direct,  unmistakable  tendency  to  make  China  formidable 
as  a “ power,”  that  they  want  and  will  have,  but  the  rest  must 
wait ; and  if  there  were  not  a Zeitgeist,  or  Spirit-of-the-Age, 
superior  to  any  Chinese,  other  improvements  might  wait  long. 
Some  Chinese  scholars  and  statesmen,  apparently  realising  the 
inferiority  of  China,  claim  that  Western  nations  have  merely 
used  the  data  accumulated  by  ancient  Chinese  who  cultivated 
mathematical  and  natural  science  to  a high  degree,  but  whose 
modern  descendants  have  unfortunately  allowed  the  secrets  of 
nature  to  be  stolen  by  the  men  of  the  West. 

The  Chinese  do  not  appear  to  be  much  impressed  by  the 
undoubted  ability  of  individual  foreigners  in  practical  lines. 
Saxons  admire  the  man  who  “ can,”  and,  as  Carlyle  was  so 
fond  of  remarking,  they  make  and  call  him  “ king.”  The 
skill  of  the  foreigner  is  to  the  Chinese  amusing  and  perhaps 
amazing,  and  they  will  by  no  means  forget  or  omit  to  make 
demands  upon  it  the  next  time  they  chance  to  want  anything 
done ; but  so  far  from  regarding  the  foreigner  in  this  respect 
as  a model  for  imitation,  it  is  probable  that  the  idea  does  not 
even  enter  the  skull  of  one  Chinese  in  ten  thousand.  To  them 
the  ideal  scholar  continues  to  be  the  literary  fossil  who  has 
learned  everything,  forgotten  nothing,  taken  several  degrees, 
has  hard  work  to  keep  from  starvation,  and  with  claws  on  his 
hands  several  inches  in  length,  cannot  do  any  one  thing  (ex- 
cept to  teach  school)  by  which  he  can  keep  soul  and  body 
together,  for  “the  Superior  Man  is  not  a Utensil.” 


CONTEMPT  FOR  FOREIGNERS 


I05 

Western  nations,  taken  as  a whole,  do  not  impress  educated 
Chinese  with  a sense  of  the  superiority  of  such  nations  to 
China.  This  feeling  was  admirably  exemplified  in  the  reply 
of  His  Excellency  Kuo,  former  Chinese  Minister  to  Great 
Britain,  when  told,  in  answer  to  a question,  that  in  Dr.  Legge’s 
opinion  the  moral  condition  of  England  is  higher  than  that  of 
China.  After  pausing  to  take  in  this  judgment  in  all  its  bear- 
ings, His  Excellency  replied,  with  deep  feeling,  “ I am  very 
much  surprised.”  Comparisons  of  this  sort  cannot  be  success- 
fully made  in  a superficial  way,  and  least  of  all  from  a diplo- 
matic point  of  view.  They  involve  a minute  acquaintance 
with  the  inner  life  of  both  nations,  and  an  ability  to  appre- 
ciate the  operations  of  countless  causes  in  the  gradual  multi- 
plication of  effects.  Into  any  such  comparison  it  is  far  from 
being  our  purpose  now  to  enter.  It  is  now  well  recognised 
that  the  Literati  of  China  are  the  chief  enemies  of  the  for- 
eigner, who,  though  he  may  have  sundry  mechanical  mysteries 
at  his  disposal,  is  held  to  be  wholly  incapable  of  appreciating 
China’s  moral  greatness.  This  feeling  of  jealous  contempt  is 
embodied  in  the  typical  Chinese  scholar,  “ with  his  head  in 
the  Sung  Dynasty  and  his  feet  in  the  present.”  It  is  men  of 
this  class  who  prepared  and  put  in  circulation  the  flood  of 
bitter  anti-foreign  literature  with  which  in  recent  years  central 
China  has  been  inundated. 

It  was  once  thought  that  with  Western  inventions  China 
could  be  taken  by  storm.  Knives,  forks,  stockings,  and  pianos 
were  shipped  to  China  from  England,  under  the  impression 
that  this  Empire  was  about  to  be  “ Europeanised.”  If  there 
ever  had  been  a time  when  the  Chinese  Empire  was  to  be 
taken  by  storm  in  this  way,  that  time  would  have  been  long 
ago,  but  there  never  was  such  a time.  China  is  not  a coun- 
try, and  the  Chinese  are  not  a people,  to  be  taken  by  storm 
with  anything  whatsoever.  The  only  way  to  secure  the  solid 
and  permanent  respect  of  the  Chinese  race  for  Western  peo- 


io6 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


pies  as  a whole  is  by  convincing  object  lessons,  showing  that 
Christian  civilisation  in  the  mass  and  in  detail  accomplishes 
results  which  cannot  be  matched  by  the  civilisation  which 
China  already  possesses.  If  this  conviction  cannot  be  pro- 
duced, the  Chinese  will  continue,  and  not  without  reason,  to 
feel  and  to  display  in  all  their  relation  to  foreigners  both  con- 
descension and  contempt. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  PUBLIC  SPIRIT. 

THE  Book  of  Odes,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Chinese 
Classics,  contains  the  following  prayer,  supposed  to  be 
uttered  by  the  husbandmen : “ May  it  rain  first  on  our  public 
fields,  and  afterwards  extend  to  our  private  ones.”  Whatever 
may  have  been  true  of  the  palmy  days  of  the  Chou  Dynasty 
and  of  those  which  preceded  it,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
very  little  praying  is  done  in  the  present  day,  either  by  hus- 
bandmen or  any  other  private  individuals,  for  rain  which  is 
to  be  applied  “ first  ” on  the  “ public  fields.”  The  Chinese 
government,  as  we  are  often  reminded,  is  patriarchal  in  its 
nature,  and  demands  filial  obedience  from  its  subjects.  A 
plantation  negro  who  had  heard  the  saying,  “ Every  man  for 
himself,  and  God  for  us  all,”  failed  to  reproduce  the  precise 
shade  of  its  thought  in  his  own  modified  version,  as  follows, 
" Every  man  for  himself,  and  God  for  himself!  ” This  new 
form  of  an  old  adage  contains  in  a nutshell  the  substance  of 
the  views  of  the  average  Chinese  with  regard  to  the  powers 
that  be.  “ I,  for  my  part,  am  obliged  to  look  out  for  myself,” 
he  seems  to  think,  if  indeed  he  bestows  any  thought  whatever 
on  the  government,  and  “ the  government  is  old  enough  and 
strong  enough  to  take  care  of  itself  without  any  help  of  mine.” 
The  government,  on  the  other  hand,  although  patriarchal,  is 
much  more  occupied  in  looking  after  the  Patriarch,  than  in 
caring  for  the  Patriarch’s  family.  Generally  speaking,  it  will 
do  very  little  to  which  it  is  not  impelled  by  the  danger,  if  it 

107 


io8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


does  nothing  at  first,  of  having  to  do  all  the  more  at  a later 
date.  The  people  recognise  distinctly  that  the  prospective 
loss  of  taxes  is  the  motive  force  in  government  efforts  to  mit- 
igate disasters  such  as  the  continual  outbreaks  of  irrepressible 
rivers.  What  the  people  do  for  themselves  in  endeavouring 
to  prevent  calamities  of  this  sort,  is  due  to  the  instinct  of  self- 
preservation,  for  the  people  thus  make  sure  that  the  work  is 
done,  and  also  escape  the  numberless  exactions  which  are 
sure  to  be  the  invariable  concomitants  of  government  energy 
locally  applied. 

No  more  typical  example  could  be  selected  of  the  neglect 
of  public  affairs  by  the  government,  and  the  absence  of  public 
spirit  among  the  people,  than  the  condition  of  Chinese  roads. 
There  are  abundant  evidences  in  various  parts  of  the  Empire 
that  there  once  existed  great  imperial  highways  connecting 
many  of  the  most  important  cities,  and  that  these  highways 
were  paved  with  stone  and  bordered  with  trees.  The  ruins 
of  such  roads  are  found  not  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Peking,  but  in  such  remote  regions  as  Hunan  and  Szechuen. 
Vast  sums  must  have  been  expended  on  their  construction, 
and  it  would  have  been  comparatively  easy  to  keep  them  in 
repair,  but  this  has  been  uniformly  neglected,  so  that  the  ruins 
of  such  highways  present  serious  impediments  to  travel,  and 
the  tracks  have  been  abandoned  from  sheer  necessity.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  this  decay  of  the  great  lines  of  traffic 
took  place  during  the  long  period  of  disturbances  before  the 
close  of  the  Ming  Dynasty,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent Manchu  line ; but  making  all  due  allowance  for  political 
convulsions,  a period  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  is  surely 
sufficiently  long  in  which  to  restore  the  arteries  of  the  Empire. 
No  such  restoration  has  either  taken  place  or  been  attempted, 
and  the  consequence  is  the  state  of  things  with  which  we  are 
but  too  familiar. 

The  attitude  of  the  government  is  handsomely  matched  by 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  PUBLIC  SPIRIT 


109 


that  of  the  people,  who  each  and  all  are  in  the  position  of 
one  who  has  no  care  or  responsibility  for  what  is  done  with 
the  public  property  so  long  as  he  personally  is  not  the  loser. 
In  fact,  the  very  conception  that  a road,  or  that  anything, 
belongs  to  “ the  public  ” is  totally  alien  to  the  Chinese  mind. 
The  “ streams  and  mountains  ” (that  is,  the  Empire)  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  property  in  fee  simple  of  the  Emperor  for  the 
time,  to  have  and  to  hold  as  long  as  he  can.  The  roads  are 
his  too,  and  if  anything  is  to  be  done  to  them  let  him  do  it. 
But  the  greater  part  of  the  roads  do  not  belong  to  the  Em- 
peror in  any  other  sense  than  that  in  which  the  farms  of  the 
peasants  belong  to  him,  for  these  roads  are  merely  narrow 
strips  of  farms  devoted  to  the  use  of  those  who  wish  to  use 
them,  not  with  the  consent  of  the  owner. of  the  land,  for  that 
was  never  asked,  but  from  the  force  of  necessity.  The  entire 
road  belongs  to  some  farm,  and  pays  taxes  like  any  other 
land,  albeit  the  owner  derives  no  more  advantage  from  its 
use  than  does  any  one  else.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is 
evidently  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  restrict  the  roads  as 
much  as  he  can,  which  he  does  by  an  extended  system  of 
ditches  and  banks  designed  to  make  it  difficult  for  any  one  to 
traverse  any  other  than  the  narrow  strip  of  land  which  is  in- 
dispensable for  communication.  If  the  heavy  summer  rains 
wash  away  a part  of  the  farm  into  the  road,  the  farmer  goes 
to  the  road  and  digs  his  land  out  again,  a process  which,  com- 
bined with  natural  drainage  and  the  incessant  dust-storms, 
results  eventually  in  making  the  road  a canal.  Of  what  we 
mean  by  “ right  of  way  ” no  Chinese  has  the  smallest  con- 
ception. 

Travellers  on  the  Peiho  River  between  Tientsin  and  Peking 
have  sometimes  noticed  in  the  river  little  flags,  and  upon 
inquiry  have  ascertained  that  they  indicated  the  spots  where 
torpedoes  had  been  planted,  and  that  passing  boats  were  ex- 
pected to  avoid  them!  A detachment  of  Chinese  troops  en- 


1X0 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


gaged  in  artillery  practice  has  been  known  to  train  their 
cannon  directly  across  one  of  the  leading  highways  of  the 
Empire,  to  the  great  interruption  of  traffic  and  to  the  terror 
of  the  animals  attached  to  carts,  the  result  being  a serious 
runaway  accident. 

A man  who  wishes  to  load  or  to  unload  his  cart  leaves  it 
in  the  middle  of  the  roadway  while  the  process  is  going  on, 
and  whoever  wishes  to  use  the  road  must  wait  until  the  pro- 
cess is  completed.  If  a farmer  has  occasion  to  fell  a tree  he 
allows  it  to  fall  across  the  road,  and  travellers  can  tarry  until 
the  trunk  is  chopped  up  and  removed. 

The  free  and  easy  ways  of  the  country  districts  are  well 
matched  by  the  encroachments  upon  the  streets  of  cities. 
The  wide  streets  of  Peking  are  lined  with  stalls  and  booths 
which  have  no  right  of  existence,  and  which  must  be  sum- 
marily removed  if  the  Emperor  happens  to  pass  that  way. 
As  soon  as  the  Emperor  has  passed,  the  booths  are  in  their 
old  places.  The  narrow  passages  which  serve  as  streets  in 
most  Chinese  cities  are  choked  with  every  form  of  industrial 
obstruction.  The  butcher,  the  barber,  the  peripatetic  cook 
with  his  travelling-restaurant,  the  carpenter,  the  cooper,  and 
countless  other  workmen,  plant  themselves  by  the  side  of  the 
tiny  passage  which  throbs  with  the  life  of  a great  metropolis, 
and  do  all  they  can  to  form  a strangulating  clot.  Even  the 
women  bring  out  their  quilts  and  spread  them  on  the  road, 
for  they  have  no  space  so  broad  in  their  exiguous  courts. 
There  is  very  little  which  the  Chinese  do  at  all  which  is  not 
at  some  time  done  on  the  street. 

Nor  are  the  obstructions  to  traffic  of  a movable  nature  only. 
The  carpenter  leaves  a pile  of  huge  logs  in  front  of  his  shop, 
the  dyer  hangs  up  his  long  bolts  of  cloth,  and  the  flour-dealer 
his  strings  of  vermicelli  across  the  principal  thoroughfare,  for 
the  space  opposite  to  the  shop  of  each  belongs  not  to  an 
imaginary  “ public,”  but  to  the  owner  of  the  shop.  The  idea 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  PUBLIC  SPIRIT 


hi 


that  this  alleged  ownership  of  the  avenues  of  locomotion  en- 
tails any  corresponding  duties  in  the  way  of  repair,  is  not  one 
which  the  Chinese  mind,  in  its  present  stage  of  development, 
is  capable  of  taking  in  at  all.  No  one  individual,  even  if  he 
were  disposed  to  repair  a road  (which  would  never  happen), 
has  the  time  or  the  material  wherewith  to  do  it,  and  for  many 
persons  to  combine  for  this  purpose  would  be  totally  out  of 
the  question,  for  each  would  be  in  deep  anxiety  lest  he  should 
do  more  of  the  work,  and  receive  less  of  the  benefit,  than 
some  other  person.  It  would  be  very  easy  for  each  local 
magistrate  to  require  the  villages  lying  along  the  line  of  the 
main  highways,  or  within  a reasonable  distance  thereof,  to 
keep  them  passable  at  almost  all  seasons,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  idea  ever  entered  the  mind  of  any  Chinese 
official. 

Not  only  do  the  Chinese  feel  no  interest  in  that  which 
belongs  to  the  “public,”  but  all  such  property,  if  unprotected 
and  available,  is  a mark  for  theft.  Paving-stones  are  carried 
off  for  private  use,  and  square  rods  of  the  brick  facing  to  city 
walls  gradually  disappear.  A wall  enclosing  a foreign  ceme- 
tery in  one  of  the  ports  of  China  was  carried  away  till  not  a 
brick  remained,  as  soon  as  it  was  discovered  that  the  place 
was  in  charge  of  no  one  in  particular.  It  is  not  many  years 
since  an  extraordinary  sensation  was  caused  in  the  Imperial 
palace  in  Peking  by  the  discovery  that  extensive  robberies  had 
been  committed  on  the  copper  roofs  of  some  of  the  buildings 
within  the  forbidden  city.  It  is  a common  observation  among 
the  Chinese  that,  within  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  there  is  no 
one  so  imposed  upon  and  cheated  as  the  Emperor. 

The  question  is  often  raised  whether  the  Chinese  have  any 
patriotism,  and  it  is  not  a question  which  can  be  answered  in 
a word.  There  is  undoubtedly  a strong  national  feeling,  espe- 
cially among  the  literary  classes,  and  to  this  feeling  much  of 
the  hostility  exhibited  to  foreigners  and  their  inventions  is  to 


I I 2 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


be  traced.  Within  recent  years  the  province  of  Hunan  has 
been  flooded  with  streams  of  anti-foreign  literature  full  of 
malignant  calumniations,  and  designed  to  cause  riots  which 
shall  drive  the  foreign  devil  out  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 
From  the  Chinese  point  of  view  the  impulse  which  leads  to 
these  publications  is  as  praiseworthy  as  we  should  consider 
resistance  to  anarchists  to  be.  The  charges  are  partly  due  to 

j 

misapprehension,  and  in  part  also  to  that  race  hatred  from 
which  Western  nations  are  by  no  means  fr£e.  Probably  many 
Chinese  consider  these  attacks  thoroughly  patriotic.  But  that 
any  considerable  body  of  Chinese  are  actuated  by  a desire  to 
serve  their  country,  because  it  is  their  country,  aside  from  the 
prospect  of  emolument,  is  a proposition  which  will  require 
much  more  proof  than  has  yet  been  offered  to  secure  its  ac- 
ceptance by  any  one  who  knows  the  Chinese.  It  need  not 
be  remarked  that  a Chinese  might  be  patriotic  without  taking 
much  interest  in  the  fortunes  of  a Tartar  Dynasty  like  the 
present,  but  there  is  the  best  reason  to  think  that,  whatever 
the  dynasty  might  happen  to  be,  the  feeling  of  the  mass  of  the 
nation  would  be  the  same  as  it  is  now — a feeling  of  profound 
indifference.  The  key-note  to  this  view  of  public  affairs  was 
sounded  by  Confucius  himself,  in  a pregnant  sentence  found 
in  the  “ Analects  ” : “ The  Master  said : He  who  is  not  in  an 
office  has  no  concern  with  plans  for  the  administration  of  its 
duties.”  To  our  thought  these  significant  words  are  partly  the 
result,  and  to  a very  great  degree  the  cause,  of  the  constitu- 
tional unwillingness  of  the  Chinese  to  interest  themselves  in 
matters  for  which  they  are  in  no  way  responsible. 

M.  Hue  gives  an  excellent  example  of  this  spirit.  “ In 
1851,  at  the  period  of  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Tao  Kuang, 
we  were  travelling  on  the  road  from  Peking,  and  one  day 
when  we  had  been  taking  tea  at  an  inn,  in  company  with 
some  Chinese  citizens,  we  tried  to  get  up  a little  political  dis- 
cussion. We  spoke  of  the  recent  death  of  the  Emperor,  an 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  PUBLIC  SPIRIT 


ii3 

important  event  which  of  course  must  have  interested  every- 
body. We  expressed  our  anxiety  on  the  subject  of  the  suc- 
cession to  the  Imperial  throne,  the  heir  to  which  was  not  yet 
publicly  declared.  ‘Who  knows,’  said  we,  ‘which  of  the  three 
sons  of  the  Emperor  will  have  been  appointed  to  succeed 
him?  If  it  should  be  the  eldest,  will  he  pursue  the  same  sys- 
tem of  government?  If  the  younger,  he  is  still  very  young, 
and  it  is  said  that  there  are  contrary  influences,  two  opposing 
parties  at  court;  to  which  will  he  lean?  ’ We  put  forward, 
in  short,  all  kinds  of  hypotheses,  in  order  to  stimulate  these 
good  citizens  to  make  some  observation,  v But  they  hardly 
listened  to  us.  We  came  back  again  and  again  to  the  charge, 
in  order  to  elicit  some  opinion  or  other  on  questions  that  really 
appeared  to  us  of  great  importance.  But  to  all  our  piquant 
suggestions  they  replied  by  shaking  their  heads,  puffing  out 
whiffs  of  smoke,  and  taking  great  gulps  of  tea.  This  apathy 
was  really  beginning  to  provoke  us,  when  one  of  these  worthy 
Chinese,  getting  up  from  his  seat,  came  and  laid  his  two  hands 
on  our  shoulders  in  a manner  quite  paternal,  and  said,  smiling 
rather  ironically:  ‘ Listen  to  me,  my  friend!  Why  should  you 
trouble  your  heart  and  fatigue  your  head  by  all  these  vain 
surmises?  The  mandarins  have  to  attend  to  affairs  of  state ; 
they  are  paid  for  it.  Let  them  earn  their  money,  then.  But 
don’t  let  us  torment  ourselves  about  what  does  not  concern 
us.  We  should  be  great  fools  to  want  to  do  political  business 
for  nothing.’  ‘ That  is  very  conformable  to  reason,’  cried  the 
rest  of  the  company ; and  thereupon  they  pointed  out  to  us 
that  our  tea  was  getting  cold  and  our  pipes  were  out.” 

When  it  is  remembered  that  in  the  attack  on  Peking,  in 
i860,  the  British  army  was  furnished  with  mules  bought  of 
the  Chinese  in  the  province  of  Shantung ; that  Tientsin  and 
Tungchow  made  capitulations  on  their  own  account,  agreeing 
to  provide  the  British  and  French  with  whatever  was  wanted 
if  these  cities  were  not  disturbed ; that  most  indispensable 


ii4 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


coolie  work  was  done  for  the  foreign  allies  by  Chinese  subjects 
hired  for  the  purpose  in  Hongkong;  and  that  when  these 
same  coolies  were  captured  by  the  Chinese  army  they  were 
sent  back  to  the  British  ranks  with  their  cues  cut  off — it  is  not 
difficult  to  perceive  that  patriotism  and  public  spirit,  if  such 
things  exist  at  all  in  China,  do  not  mean  what  these  words 
imply  to  Anglo-Saxons. 

Upon  the  not  infrequent  occasions  when  it  is  necessary  for 
the  people  to  rise  and  resist  the  oppressions  and  exactions  of 
their  rulers,  it  is  always  indispensable  that  there  should  be  a 
few  men  of  capacity  to  take  the  lead.  Under  them  the  move- 
ment may  gather  such  momentum  that  the  government  must 
make  some  practical  concessions.  But  whatever  it  does  with 
the  mass  of  the  “stupid  people,”  the  leaders  are  invariably 
marked  men,  and  nothing  less  than  their  heads  will  satisfy  the 
demands  of  justice.  To  be  willing  not  merely  to  risk  but 
almost  certainly  to  lose  one’s  life  in  such  a cause  is  the  highest 
possible  example  of  public  spirit. 

At  critical  epochs  in  Chinese  history,  especially  when  there 
is  likely  to  be  a change  of  dynasties,  single-hearted  and  reso- 
lute men  have  often  thrown  themselves  into  the  breach,  with 
a chivalrous  devotion  to  the  cause  which  they  espoused  worthy 
of  the  highest  praise.  Such  men  are  not  only  true  patriots, 
but  are  irrefragable  proofs  that  the  Chinese  are  capable  of 
being  stirred  to  the  most  heroic  exertions  in  following  public- 
spirited  leaders. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


CONSERVATISM. 

IT  is  true  of  the  Chinese,  to  a greater  degree  than  of  any 
other  nation  in  history,  that  their  Golden  Age  is  in  the 
past.  The  sages  of  antiquity  themselves  spoke  with  the  deep- 
est reverence  of  more  ancient  “ ancients.”  Confucius  declared 
that  he  was  not  an  originator,  but  a transmitter.  It  was  his 
mission  to  gather  up  what  had  once  been  known,  but  long 
neglected  or  misunderstood.  It  was  his  painstaking  fidelity 
in  accomplishing  this  task,  as  well  as  the  high  ability  which  he 
brought  to  it,  that  gave  the  Master  his  extraordinary  hold  upon 
the  people  of  his  race.  It  is  his  relation  to  the  past,  as  much 
as  the  quality  of  what  he  taught,  that  constitutes  the  claim  of 
Confucius  to  the  front  rank  of  holy  men.  It  is  the  Confucian 
theory  of  morals  that  a good  ruler  will  make  a good  people. 
The  prince  is  the  dish,  the  people  are  the  water ; if  the  dish  -is 
round,  the  water  is  round,  if  the  dish  is  square,  the  water  will 
be  square  also.  Upon  this  theory,  it  is  not  strange  that  all 
the  virtues  are  believed  to  have  flourished  in  the  days  when 
model  rulers  existed.  The  most  ignorant  coolie  will  upon 
occasion  remind  us  that  in  the  days  of  “ Yao  and  Shun  ” there 
was  no  necessity  for  closing  the  doors  at  night,  for  there  were 
no  thieves ; and  that  if  an  article  was  lost  on  the  highway  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  first  comer  to  stand  as  a nominal  guard 
over  it  until  the  next  one  happened  along,  who  took  his  turn 
until  the  owner  arrived,  who  always  found  his  property  per- 
fectly intact.  It  is  a common  saying  that  the  present  is  infe- 

115 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


1 16 

rior  to  the  past  in  the  items  of  benevolence  and  justice ; but 
that  in  violations  of  conscience  the  past  cannot  compete  with 
the  present. 

This  tendency  to  depreciate  the  present  time  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  China  or  to  the  Chinese,  but  is  found  with  impar- 
tiality all  over  the  earth ; yet  in  the  Celestial  Empire  it  seems 
to  have  attained  a sincerity  of  conviction  not  elsewhere 
equalled.  All  that  is  best  in  the  ancient  days  is  believed  to 
have  survived  in  the  literature  to  which  the  present  day  is  the 
heir,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  this  literature  is  regarded 
with  such  unmixed  idolatry.  The  orthodox  Chinese  view  of 
the  Chinese  Classics  appears  to  be  much  the  same  as  the 
orthodox  Christian  view  in  regard  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures ; 
they  are  supposed  to  contain  all  that  is  highest  and  best  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  past,  and  to  contain  all  that  is  equally  adapted 
to  the  present  time  and  to  the  days  of  old.  That  anything  is 
needed  to  supplement  the  Chinese  Classics  is  no  more  believed 
by  a good  Confucianist,  than  it  is  believed  by  a good  Chris- 
tian that  supplementary  additions  to  the  Bible  are  desirable  or 
to  be  expected.  Both  Christians  and  Confucianists  agree  in 
the  general  proposition  that  when  a thing  is  as  good  as  it  can 
be,  it  is  idle  to  try  to  make  it  any  better. 

Just  as  many  good  Christians  make  some  Bible  “text”  a 
pretext  for  something  which  the  biblical  writers  never  had  in 
mind,  so  Confucian  scholars  are  upon  occasion  able  to  find  in 
“ the  old  masters  ” not  only  authority  for  all  the  modern  pro- 
ceedings of  the  government,  but  the  real  roots  of  ancient 
mathematics,  and  even  of  modern  science. 

The  literature  of  antiquity  is  that  which  has  moulded  the 
Chinese  nation,  and  has  brought  about  a system  of  government 
which,  whatever  its  other  qualities,  has  been  proved  to  possess 
that  of  persistence.  Since  self-preservation  is  the  first  law  of 
nations  as  of  individuals,  it  is  not  singular  that  a form  of  rule 
which  an  experience  of  unmatched  duration  has  shown  to  be 


CONSERVATISM 


1 1 7 


so  well  adapted  to  its  end  should  have  come  to  be  regarded 
with  a reverence  akin  to  that  felt  for  the  Classics.  It  would 
be  a curious  discovery  if  some  learned  student  of  Chinese 
history  should  succeed  in  ascertaining  and  explaining  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  the  Chinese  government  came  to  be  what  it 
is.  If  ever  those  processes  should  be  discovered,  we  think  it 
certain  that  it  will  then  be  clearly  seen  why  there  have  been 
in  China  so  few  of  those  interior  revolutions  to  which  all  other 
peoples  have  been  subject.  There  is  a story  of  a man  who 
built  a stone  wall  six  feet  wide  and  only  four  feet  high,  and 
on  being  asked  his  reasons  for  so  singular  a proceeding,  he 
replied  that  it  was  his  purpose  that  when  the  wall  blew  over, 
it  should  be  higher  than  it  was  before ! The  Chinese  govern- 
ment is  by  no  means  incapable  of  being  blown  over,  but  it  is 
a cube,  and  when  it  capsizes,  it  simply  falls  upon  some  other 
face,  and  to  external  appearance,  as  well  as  to  interior  sub- 
stance, is  the  same  that  it  has  always  been.  Repeated  expe- 
rience of  this  process  has  taught  the  Chinese  that  this  result  is 
as  certain  as  that  a cat  will  fall  upon  its  feet,  and  the  convic- 
tion is  accompanied  by  a most  implicit  faith  in  the  divine  wis- 
dom of  those  who  planned  and  built  so  wisely  and  so  well. 
To  suggest  improvements  would  be  the  rankest  heresy.  Hence 
it  has  come  about  that  the  unquestioned  superiority  of  the 
ancients  rests  upon  the  firm  basis  of  the  recognised  inferiority 
of  those  who  come  after  them. 

With  these  considerations  clearly  in  mind,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  perceive  the  rationale  of  what  seems  at  first  the  blind 
and  obstinate  adherence  of  the  Chinese  to  the  ways  of  the 
past.  To  the  Chinese,  as  to  the  ancient  Romans,  manners  and 
morals  are  interchangeable  ideas,  for  they  have  the  same  root 
and  are  in  their  essence  identical.  To  the  Chinese  an  inva- 
sion of  their  customs  is  an  invasion  of  the  regions  which  are 
most  sacred.  It  is  not  necessary  for  this  effect  that  the  cus- 
toms should  be  apprehended  in  their  ultimate  relations,  or  in- 


n8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


deed,  strictly  speaking,  apprehended  at  all.  They  are  resolutely 
defended  by  an  instinct  similar  to  that  which  leads  a she-bear 
to  protect  her  cubs.  This  is  not  a Chinese  instinct  merely,  but 
it  belongs  to  human  nature.  It  has  been  profoundly  remarked 
that  millions  of  men  are  ready  to  die  for  a faith  which  they 
do  not  comprehend,  and  by  the  tenets  of  which  they  do  not 
regulate  their  lives. 

Chinese  customs,  like  the  Chinese  language,  have  become 
established  in  some  way  to  us  unknown.  Customs,  like  human 
speech,  once  established  resist  change.  But  the  conditions 
under  which  Chinese  customs  and  language  crystallised  into 
shape  are  in  no  two  places  exactly  the  same.  Hence  we  have 
those  perplexing  variations  of  usage  indicated  in  the  common 
proverb  that  customs  differ  every  ten  miles.  Hence,  too,  we 
have  the  bewildering  dialects.  When  once  the  custom  or  the 
dialect  has  become  fixed,  it  resembles  plaster-of- Paris  which 
has  set,  and  while  it  may  be  broken,  it  cannot  be  changed. 
This,  at  least,  is  the  theory,  but,  like  other  theories,  it  must  be 
made  sufficiently  elastic  to  suit  the  facts,  which  are  that  no 
mere  custom  is  necessarily  immortal,  and,  given  certain  con- 
ditions, a change  can  be  effected. 

No  better  illustration  of  this  truth  could  be  given  than  one 
drawn  from  the  experience  of  the  present  dynasty  in  intro- 
ducing an  entirely  new  style  of  tonsure  among  their  Chinese 
subjects.  It  was  inevitable  that  such  a conspicuous  and  tan- 
gible mark  of  subjection  should  have  been  bitterly  resisted, 
even  to  the  death,  by  great  numbers  of  the  Chinese.  But  the 
Manchus  showed  how  well  they  were  fitted  for  the  high  task 
which  they  had  undertaken,  by  their  persistent  adherence  to 
the  requirement,  compliance  with  which  was  made  at  once  a 
sign  and  a test  of  loyalty.  The  result  is  what  we  see.  The 
Chinese  people  are  now  more  proud  of  their  cues  than  of  any 
other  characteristic  of  their  dress,  and  the  rancorous  hostility 
to  the  edict  of  the  Manchus  survives  only  in  the  turbans  of 


A Chinese  Barber. 


CONSERVATISM 


119 


the  natives  of  the  provinces  of  Canton  and  Fukien,  coverings 
once  adopted  to  hide  the  national  disgrace. 

The  introduction  of  the  Buddhist  religion  into  China  was 
accomplished  only  at  the  expense  of  a warfare  of  the  most 
determined  character ; but  once  thoroughly  rooted,  it  appears 
as  much  like  a native  as  Taoism,  and  not  less  difficult  to 
supplant. 

The  genesis  of  Chinese  customs  being  what  it  is,  it  is  easy 
to  perceive  that  it  is  the  underlying  assumption  that  whatever 
is  is  right.  Thus  a long-established  usage  is  a tyranny.  Of 
the  countless  individuals  who  conform  to  the  custom,  not  one 
is  at  all  concerned  with  the  origin  or  the  reason  of  the  acts. 
His  business  is  to  conform,  and  he  conforms.  The  degree  of 
religious  faith  in  different  parts  of  the  Empire  doubtless  differs 
widely,  but  nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  that  all  the  rites 
of  the  “ three  religions  ” are  performed  by  millions  who  are  as 
destitute  of  anything  which  ought  to  be  called  faith,  as  they 
are  of  an  acquaintance  with  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  To  any 
inquiry  as  to  the  reason  for  any  particular  act  of  religious 
routine,  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  receive  two  answers  : 
the  first,  that  the  whole  business  of  communication  with  the 
gods  has  been  handed  down  from  the  ancients,  and  must 
therefore  be  on  the  firmest  possible  basis ; the  second,  that 
“ everybody  ” does  so,  and  therefore  the  person  in  question 
must  conform.  In  China  the  machinery  moves  the  cogs,  and 
not  the  cogs  the  machinery.  While  this  continues  to  be  al- 
ways and  everywhere  true,  it  is  also  true  that  the  merest  shell 
of  conformity  is  all  that  is  demanded. 

It  is  a custom  in  Mongolia  for  every  one  who  can  afford  it 
to  use  snuff,  and  to  offer  it  to  his  friends.  Every  one  is  pro- 
vided with  a little  snuff-box,  which  he  produces  whenever  he 
encounters  a friend.  If  the  person  with  the  snuff-box  hap- 
pens to  be  out  of  snuff,  that  does  not  prevent  the  passing  of 
the  snuff-box,  of  which  each  guest  takes  a deliberate,  though 


I 20 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


an  imaginary  pinch,  and  returns  the  box  to  its  owner.  To  seem 
to  notice  that  the  box  is  empty  would  not  be  “ good  form,” 
but  by  compliance  with  the  proper  usages  the  “ face  ” of  the 
host  is  saved,  and  all  is  according  to  well-settled  precedent. 
In  many  important  particulars  it  is  not  otherwise  with  the 
Chinese.  The  life  may  have  long  departed,  but  there  remains 
the  coral  reef,  the  avenues  to  which,  in  order  to  avoid  ship- 
wreck, must  be  diligently  respected. 

The  fixed  resolution  to  do  certain  acts  in  certain  ways,  and 
in  no  other,  is  not  peculiar  to  China.  The  coolies  in  India 
habitually  carried  burdens  upon  their  heads,  and  applied  the 
same  principle  to  the  removal  of  earth  for  railways.  When 
the  contractors  substituted  wheelbarrows,  the  coolies  merely 
transferred  the  barrows  to  the  tops  of  their  skulls.  The  coolies 
in  Brazil  carry  burdens  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  India.  A 
foreign  gentleman  in  the  former  country  gave  a servant  a letter 
to  be  posted,  and  was  surprised  to  see  him  put  the  letter  on 
his  head  and  weight  it  with  a stone  to  keep  it  in  place.  The 
exact  similarity  of  mental  processes  reveals  a similarity  of 
cause,  and  it  is  a cause  very  potent  in  Chinese  affairs.  It 
leads  to  those  multiplied  instances  of  imitativeness  with  which 
we  are  all  so  familiar,  as  when  the  cook  breaks  an  egg  and 
throws  it  away  each  time  that  he  makes  a pudding,  because 
on  the  first  occasion  when  he  was  shown  how  to  make  a pud- 
ding an  egg  happened  to  be  bad ; or  when  the  tailor  puts  a 
patch  on  a new  garment  because  an  old  one  given  him  as  a 
measure  chanced  to  be  thus  decorated.  Stories  of  this  sort 
are  doubtless  often  meant  as  harmless  exaggerations  of  a 
Chinese  characteristic,  but  they  represent  the  reality  with  great 
fidelity. 

Every  one  acquainted  with  Chinese  habits  will  be  able  to 
adduce  instances  of  a devotion  to  precedent  which  seems  to 
us  unaccountable,  and  which  really  is  so  until  we  apprehend 
the  postulate  which  underlies  the  act.  In  a country  which 


CONSERVATISM 


I 2 I 


stretches  through  some  twenty-five  degrees  of  latitude,  but  in 
which  winter  furs  are  taken  off  and  straw  hats  are  put  on 
according  to  a fixed  rule  for  the  whole  Empire,  it  would  be 
strange  if  precedent  were  not  a kind  of  divinity.  In  regions 
where  the  only  heat  in  the  houses  during  the  cold  winter 
comes  from  the  scanty  fire  under  the  “ stove-bed,”  or  k‘ang, 
it  is  not  uncommon  for  travellers  who  have  been  caught  in  a 
sudden  “ cold  snap  ” to  find  that  no  arguments  can  induce  the 
landlord  of  the  inn  to  heat  the  k‘ang,  because  the  season  for 
heating  it  has  not  arrived! 

The  reluctance  of  Chinese  artificers  to  adopt  new  methods 
is  sufficiently  well  known  to  all,  but  perhaps  few  even  of  these 
conservatives  are  more  conservative  than  the  head  of  the 
company  of  workmen  employed  to  burn  bricks  in  a kiln  which, 
with  all  that  appertained  thereto,  was  the  property  of  foreign- 
ers and  not  of  those  who  worked  it.  As  there  was  occasion  to 
use  a kind  of  square  bricks  larger  than  those  which  happened 
to  be  in  fashion  in  that  region,  the  foreigner  ordered  larger 
ones  to  be  made.  All  that  was  necessary  for  this  purpose 
was  simply  the  preparation  of  a wooden  tray,  the  size  of  the 
required  brick,  to  be  used  as  a mould.  When  the  bricks  were 
wanted  they  were  not  forthcoming,  and  the  foreman,  to  whom 
the  orders  had  been  given,  being  called  to  account  for  his 
neglect,  refused  to  be  a party  to  any  such  innovation,  adducing 
as  his  all-sufficient  reason  the  affirmation  that  under  the  whole 
heavens  there  is  no  such  mould  as  this  / 

The  bearing  of  the  subject  of  conservatism  upon  the  rela- 
tion of  foreigners  to  China  and  the  Chinese  is  not  likely  to  be 
lost  sight  of  for  a moment  by  any  one  whose  lot  is  cast  in 
China,  and  who  has  the  smallest  interest  in  the  future  welfare 
of  this  mighty  Empire.  The  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  seems  destined  to  be  a critical  period  in  Chinese  his- 
tory. A great  deal  of  very  new  wine  is  offered  to  the  Chinese, 
who  have  no  other  provision  for  its  reception  than  a varied 


122 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


assortment  of  very  old  wine-skins.  Thanks  to  the  instinctive 
conservatism  of  the  Chinese  nature,  very  little  of  the  new  wine 
has  thus  far  been  accepted,  and,  for  that  little,  new  bottles  are 
in  course  of  preparation. 

The  present  attitude  of  China  towards  the  lands  of  the 
West  is  an  attitude  of  procrastination.  There  is  on  the  one 
hand  small  desire  for  that  which  is  new,  and  upon  the  other 
no  desire  at  all,  or  even  willingness,  to  give  up  the  old.  As 
we  see  ancient  mud  huts,  that  ought  long  ago  to  have  reverted 
to  their  native  earth,  shored  up  with  clumsy  mud  pillars  which 
but  postpone  the  inevitable  fall,  so  we  behold  old  customs,  old 
superstitions,  and  old  faiths  now  outworn,  propped  up  and 
made  to  do  the  same  duty  as  heretofore.  “ If  the  old  does 
not  go,  the  new  does  not  come,”  we  are  told,  and  not  without 
truth.  The  process  of  change  from  the  one  to  the  other  may 
long  be  resisted,  and  may  then  come  about  suddenly. 

At  a time  when  it  was  first  proposed  to  introduce  tele- 
graphs, the  Governor-General  of  a maritime  province  reported 
to  the  Emperor  that  the  hostility  of  the  people  to  the  innova- 
tion was  so  great  that  the  wires  could  not  be  put  up.  But 
when  war  with  France  was  imminent,  and  the  construction  of 
the  line  was  placed  upon  an  entirely  different  basis,  the  pro- 
vincial authorities  promptly  set  up  the  telegraph  posts,  and 
saw  that  they  were  respected. 

Not  many  years  ago  the  superstition  of  feng-shui  was  be- 
lieved by  many  to  be  an  almost  insuperable  obstacle  to  the 
introduction  of  railways  in  China.  The  very  first  short  line, 
constructed  as  an  outlet  for  the  K‘ai-p‘ing  coal  mines,  passed 
through  a large  Chinese  cemetery,  the  graves  being  removed 
to  make  way  for  it,  as  they  would  have  been  in  England  or  in 
France.  A single  inspection  of  that  bisected  graveyard  was 
sufficient  to  produce  the  conviction  that  feng-shui  could  never 
stand  before  an  engine,  when  the  issue  is  narrowed  down  to 
a trial  of  strength  between  “ wind-water  ” and  steam.  The 


CONSERVATISM 


123 


experience  gained  in  the  subsequent  extension  of  this  initial 
line  shows  clearly  that  however  financial  considerations  may 
delay  the  introduction  of  railways,  geomantic  superstitions  are 
for  this  purpose  quite  inert. 

The  union  of  the  conservative  instinct  with  the  capacity  for 
invasion  of  precedents  is  visible  in  important  Chinese  affairs. 
In  China  no  principle  is  better  settled  than  that,  when  one  of 
his  parents  dies,  an  official  must  retire  from  office.  Yet 
against  his  repeated  and  “ tearful  ” remonstrances,  the  most 
powerful  subject  in  the  Empire  was  commanded  by  the 
Throne  to  continue  his  attention  to  the  intricate  details  of  the 
most  important  plexus  of  duties  to  be  found  in  the  Empire, 
through  all  the  years  of  what  should  have  been  mourning 
retirement  after  the  death  of  his  mother.  No  principle  would 
seem  to  be  more  firmly  established  in  China  than  that  a father 
is  the  superior  of  his  son,  who  must  always  do  him  reverence. 
Equally  well  established  is  the  principle  that  the  Emperor  is 
superior  to  all  his  subjects,  who  must  always  do  him  rever- 
ence. When,  therefore,  as  at  the  last  change  of  rulers,  it  hap- 
pens that  from  a collateral  line  is  adopted  a young  Emperor 
whose  father  is  still  living,  it  would  appear  to  be  inevitable 
that  the  father  must  either  commit  suicide,  or  go  into  a per- 
manent retirement.  Such,  it  was  supposed  when  Kuang  Hsu 
ascended  the  throne,  would  actually  be  the  end  of  Prince 
Ch'un.  Yet  during  the  illness  of  the  latter,  his  son,  the  Em- 
peror, made  repeated  calls  upon  his  subordinate-superior,  the 
father  ; and  some  modus  vivendi  was  arrived  at,  since  this  same 
father  until  his  death  held  important  offices  under  his  son. 

As  already  remarked,  the  conservative  instinct  leads  the 
Chinese  to  attach  undue  importance  to  precedent.  But  rightly 
understood  and  cautiously  used,  this  is  a great  safeguard  for 
foreigners  in  their  dealings  with  so  sensitive,  so  obstinate,  and 
so  conservative  a people.  It  is  only  necessary  to  imitate  the 
Chinese  method,  to  take  things  for  granted,  to  assume  the 


124 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


existence  of  rights  which  have  not  been  expressly  withheld,  to 
defend  them  warily  when  they  are  assailed,  and  by  all  means  to 
hold  on.  Thus,  as  in  the  case  of  the  right  of  foreign  residence 
in  Peking,  the  right  of  foreign  residence  in  the  interior,  and  in 
many  others,  wise  conservatism  is  the  safest  defence.  The 
threatening  reef  which  seemed  so  insuperable  a barrier  to  navi- 
gation, once  penetrated,  offers  upon  the  inner  side  a lagoon 
of  peace  and  tranquillity,  safe  from  the  storms  and  breakers 
which  vainly  beat  against  it. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE. 

IN  what  we  have  now  to  say,  it  must  be  premised  at  the 
outset  that  all  that  is  affirmed  of  Chinese  indifference  to 
comfort  and  convenience  respects  not  Oriental  but  Occidental 
standards,  the  principal  object  being  to  show  how  totally 
different  those  standards  are. 

Let  us  first  direct  our  attention  for  a moment  to  the  Chinese 
dress.  In  speaking  of  Chinese  contempt  for  foreigners,  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  mention  that  Western  modes  of 
apparel  have  very  little  which  is  attractive  to  the  Chinese ; 
we  are  now  forced  to  admit  that  the  converse  is  equally  true. 
To  us  it  certainly  appears  singular  that  a great  nation  should 
become  reconciled  to  such  an  unnatural  custom  as  shaving 
off  the  entire  front  part  of  the  head,  leaving  that  exposed 
which  nature  evidently  intended  should  be  protected.  But 
since  the  Chinese  were  driven  to  adopt  this  custom  at  the 
point  of  the  sword,  and  since,  as  already  remarked,  it  has  be- 
come a sign  and  a test  of  loyalty,  it  need  be  no  further  noticed 
in  this  connection  than  to  call  attention  to  the  undoubted  fact 
that  the  Chinese  themselves  do  not  recognise  any  discomfort 
from  the  practice,  and  would  probably  be  exceedingly  unwill- 
ing to  revert  to  the  Ming  Dynasty  tonsure. 

The  same  considerations  do  not  apply  to  the  Chinese  habit 
of  going  bareheaded  at  almost  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
especially  in  summer.  The  whole  nation  moves  about  in  the 
blistering  heats  of  the  summer  months  holding  one  arm  aloft, 

125 


1 26 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


with  an  open  fan  held  at  such  an  angle  as  to  obstruct  a por- 
tion of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Those  who  at  any  part  of  their 
lives  hold  an  umbrella  in  their  hands  to  ward  off  heat,  must 
constitute  but  a small  part  of  the  population.  While  men  do 
often  wear  hats  upon  certain  provocation,  Chinese  women,  so 
far  as  we  have  observed,  have  no  other  kind  of  head-dress 
than  that  which,  however  great  its  failure  viewed  from  the  un- 
sympathetic Western  standpoint,  is  intended  to  be  ornamental. 
One  of  the  very  few  requisites  for  comfort,  according  to  Chi- 
nese ideas,  is  a fan, — that  is  to  say,  in  the  season  when  it  is 
possible  to  use  such  an  accessory  to  comfort.  It  is  not  un- 
common in  the  summer  to  see  coolies,  almost  or  quite  devoid 
of  clothing,  struggling  to  track  a heavy  salt-junk  up-stream, 
vigorously  fanning  themselves  meanwhile.  Even  beggars 
frequently  brandish  broken  fans. 

It  is  one  of  the  unaccountable  phenomena  of  Chinese  civil- 
isation that  this  people,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  orig- 
inally pastoral,  and  which  certainly  shows  a high  degree  of 
ingenuity  in  making  use  of  the  gifts  of  nature,  has  never  learned 
to  weave  wool  in  such  a way  as  to  employ  it  as  clothing.  The 
only  exceptions  to  this  general  statement  of  which  we  are 
aware  relate  to  the  western  parts  of  the  Empire,  where,  to  a 
certain  extent,  woollen  fabrics  are  manufactured.  But  it  is 
most  extraordinary  that  the  art  of  making  such  goods  should 
not  have  become  general,  in  view  of  the  great  numbers  of 
sheep  which  are  to  be  seen,  especially  in  the  mountainous 
regions. 

It  is  believed  that  in  ancient  times,  before  cotton  was  intro- 
duced, garments  were  made  of  some  other  vegetable  fibres, 
such  as  rushes.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the 
nation  as  a whole  is  at  present  absolutely  dependent  upon 
cotton.  In  those  parts  of  the  Empire  where  the  winter  cold 
is  severe,  the  people  wear  an  amount  of  wadded  clothing 
almost  sufficient  to  double  the  bulk  of  their  bodies.  A child 


A Middle  Class  Family  in  Winter  Dress. 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  127 


clad  in  this  costume,  if  he  happens  to  fall  down,  is  often  as 
utterly  unable  to  rise  as  if  he  had  been  strapped  into  a cask. 
Of  the  discomfort  of  such  clumsy  dress  we  never  hear  the 
Chinese  complain.  The  discomfort  is  in  the  want  of  it.  It 
is  certain,  however,  that  no  Anglo-Saxon  would  willingly  tol- 
erate the  disabilities  of  such  an  attire,  if  he  could  by  any  pos- 
sibility be  relieved  of  it. 

In  connection  with  the  heavy  clothing  of  winter  must  be 
mentioned  the  total  lack  of  any  kind  of  underclothing.  To 
us  it  seems  difficult  to  support  existence  without  woollen  un- 
dergarments, frequently  changed.  The  Chinese  are  conscious 
of  no  such  need.  Their  burdensome  wadded  clothes  hang 
around  their  bodies  like  so  many  bags,  leaving  yawning  spaces 
through  which  the  cold  penetrates  to  the  flesh,  but  they  do 
not  mind  this  circumstance,  although  ready  to  admit  that  it  is 
not  ideal.  An  old  man  of  sixty-six,  who  complained  that  his 
circulation  was  torpid,  was  presented  with  a foreign  undershirt, 
but  told  to  keep  it  on  every  day,  to  avoid  taking  cold.  A day 
or  two  later  it  was  ascertained  that  he  had  taken  it  off,  as  he 
was  “roasted  to  death.” 

Chinese  shoes  are  made  of  cloth,  and  are  always  porous, 
absorbing  moisture  on  the  smallest  provocation.  Whenever 
the  weather  is  cold  this  keeps  the  feet  more  or  less  chilled  all 
the  time.  The  Chinese  have,  indeed,  a kind  of  oiled  boots 
which  are  designed  to  keep  out  the  dampness,  but,  like  many 
other  conveniences,  on  account  of  the  expense,  the  use  of  them 
is  restricted  to  a very  few.  The  same  is  true  of  umbrellas  as 
a protection  against  rain.  They  are  luxuries,  and  are  by  no 
means  regarded  as  necessities.  Chinese  who  are  obliged  to 
be  exposed  to  the  weather  do  not  as  a rule  think  it  important, 
certainly  not  necessary,  to  change  their  clothes  when  they 
have  become  thoroughly  wet,  and  do  not  seem  to  find  the  in- 
convenience of  allowing  their  garments  to  dry  upon  them  at 
all  a serious  one.  While  the  Chinese  admire  foreign  gloves, 


128 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


they  have  none  of  their  own,  and  while  clumsy  mittens  are  not 
unknown,  even  in  the  extreme  north  they  are  rarely  seen. 

One  of  the  most  annoying  characteristics  of  Chinese  cos- 
tume, as  seen  from  the  foreign  standpoint,  is  the  absence  of 
pockets.  The  average  Westerner  requires  a great  number  of 
these  to  meet  his  needs.  He  demands  breast-pockets  in  his 
coats  for  his  memorandum  books,  pockets  behind  for  his  hand- 
kerchiefs, pockets  in  his  vest  for  pencil,  tooth-pick,  etc.,  as 
well  as  for  his  watch,  and  in  other  accessible  positions  for  the 
accommodation  of  his  pocket-knife,  his  bunch  of  keys,  and 
his  wallet.  If  the  foreigner  is  also  provided  with  a pocket- 
comb,  a folding  foot-rule,  a cork-screw,  a boot-buttoner,  a 
pair  of  tweezers,  a minute  compass,  a folding  pair  of  scissors, 
a pin-ball,  a pocket  mirror,  and  a fountain  pen,  it  will  not 
mark  him  out  as  a singular  exception  to  his  race.  Having 
become  accustomed  to  the  constant  use  of  these  articles,  he 
cannot  dispense  with  them.  The  Chinese,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  few  or  none  of  such  things ; if  he  were  presented  with 
them  he  would  not  know  where  to  put  them.  If  he  has  a 
handkerchief  it  is  thrust  into  his  bosom,  and  so  also  is  a child 
which  he  may  have  to  carry  around.  If  he  has  a paper  of 
some  importance,  he  carefully  unties  the  strap  which  confines 
his  trousers  to  his  ankle,  inserts  the  paper,  and  goes  on  his 
way.  If  he  wears  outside  drawers,  he  simply  tucks  in  the 
paper  without  untying  anything.  In  either  case,  if  the  band 
loosens  without  his  knowledge,  the  paper  is  lost — a constant 
occurrence.  Other  depositaries  of  such  articles  are  the  folds 
of  the  long  sleeves  when  turned  back,  the  crown  of  a turned- 
up  hat,  or  the  space  between  the  cap  and  the  head.  Many 
Chinese  make  a practice  of  ensuring  a convenient,  although  a 
somewhat  exiguous,  supply  of  ready  money,  by  always  stick- 
ing a cash  in  one  ear.  The  main  dependence  for  security 
of  articles  carried,  is  the  girdle,  to  which  a small  purse,  the  to- 
bacco pouch  and  pipe,  and  similar  objects,  are  attached.  If 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  129 


the  girdle  should  work  loose,  the  articles  are  liable  to  be  lost. 
Keys,  moustache-combs,  and  a few  ancient  cash  are  attached 
to  some  prominent  button  of  the  jacket,  and  each  removal  of 
this  garment  involves  care-taking  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the 
appendages. 

If  the  daily  dress  of  the  ordinary  Chinese  seems  to  us  objec- 
tionable, his  nocturnal  costume  is  at  least  free  from  criticism 
on  the  score  of  complexity,  for  he  simply  strips  to  the  skin, 
wraps  himself  in  his  quilt,  and  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  just. 
Night-dress  he  or  she  has  none.  It  is  indeed  recorded  that 
Confucius  “required  his  sleeping-dress  to  be  half  as  long 
again  as  his  body.”  It  is  supposed,  however,  that  the  refer- 
ence in  this  passage  is  to  a robe  which  the  Master  wore  when 
he  was  fasting,  and  not  to  ah  ordinary  night-dress ; but  it  is 
at  all  events  certain  that  modern  Chinese  do  not  imitate  him 
in  his  night-robe,  and  do  not  fast  if  they  can  avoid  it.  Even 
new-born  babes,  whose  skins  are  exceedingly  sensitive  to 
the  least  changes  of  temperature,  are  carelessly  laid  under 
the  bedclothes,  which  are  thrown  back  whenever  the  mother 
wishes  to  exhibit  the  infant  to  spectators.  The  sudden  chill 
which  this  absurd  practice  occasions,  is  thought  by  competent 
judges  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  account  for  the  very  large 
number  of  Chinese  infants  who,  before  completing  the  first 
month  of  their  existence,  die  in  convulsions.  When  children 
have  grown  larger,  instead  of  being  provided  with  diapers, 
they  are  in  some  regions  clad  in  a pair  of  bifurcated  bags 
partly  filled  with  sand  or  earth,  the  mere  idea  of  which  is 
sufficient  to  fill  the  breast  of  tender-hearted  Western  mothers 
with  horror.  Weighted  with  these  strange  equipments,  the 
poor  child  is  at  first  rooted  to  one  spot  like  the  frog  which 
was  " loaded  ” with  buck-shot.  In  the  particular  districts 
where  this  custom  prevails,  it  is  common  to  speak  of  a person 
who  exhibits  small  practical  knowledge,  as  one  who  has  not 
yet  been  taken  out  of  his  “ earth-trousers  ” ! 


130 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Chinese  indifference  to  what  we  mean  by  comfort  is  exhib- 
ited as  much  in  their  houses  as  in  their  dress.  In  order  to 
establish  this  proposition,  it  is  necessary  to  take  account  not  of 
the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  who  are  forced  to  exist  as  they  can, 
but  rather  of  the  habitations  of  those  whose  circumstances 
enable  them  to  do  as  they  please.  The  Chinese  do  not  care 
for  the  shade  of  trees  about  their  houses,  but  much  prefer 
poles  covered  with  mats.  Those  who  are  unable  to  afford 
such  a luxury,  however,  and  who  might  easily  have  a grateful 
shade-tree  in  their  courtyard,  do  not  plant  anything  of  this 
sort,  but  content  themselves  with  pomegranates  or  some  other 
merely  ornamental  shrubs.  When,  owing  to  the  fierce  heat, 
the  yard  is  intolerable,  the  occupants  go  and  sit  in  the  street, 
and  when  that  is  insufferable  they  retire  to  their  houses  again. 
Few  houses  have  a north  door  opposite  the  main  entrance 
on  the  south  side.  Such  an  arrangement  would  produce  a 
draught,  and  somewhat  diminish  the  miseries  of  the  dog-days. 
When  asked  why  such  a convenience  is  not  more  common, 
the  frequent  reply  is  that  “We  do  not  have  north  doors!  ” 

North  of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude,  the  common 
sleeping-place  of  the  Chinese  is  the  k'ang,  a raised  “ brick- 
bed  ” composed  of  adobe  bricks,  and  heated  by  the  fire  used 
for  cooking.  If  there  happens  to  be  no  fire,  the  cold  earth 
appears  to  a foreigner  the  acme  of  discomfort.  If  the  fire 
happens  to  be  too  great,  he  wakes  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
night,  feeling  that  he  is  undergoing  a process  of  roasting.  In 
any  event,  the  degree  of  heat  will  not  be  continuous  through- 
out the  night.  The  whole  family  is  huddled  together  on  this 
terrace.  The  material  of  which  it  is  composed  becomes  in- 
fested with  insects,  and  even  if  the  adobe  bricks  are  annually 
removed  there  is  no  way  to  secure  immunity  from  these  un- 
welcome guests,  which  are  fixed  occupants  of  the  walls  of  all 
classes  of  dwellings. 

Other  universally  prevalent  animal  infestations  there  are, 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  13 1 


with  which  most  Chinese  are  very  familiar,  but  there  are  few 
who  seem  to  regard  parasites  as  a preventable  evil,  even  if  they 
are  recognised  as  an  evil  at  all.  The  nets  which  are  used  to 
keep  winged  torments  at  bay,  are  beyond  the  means  of  all  but 
a small  proportion  even  of  the  city  population,  and,  so  far  as 
we  know,  are  rarely  heard  of  elsewhere.  Sand-flies  and  mos- 
quitoes are  indeed  felt  to  be  a serious  nuisance,  and  occasion- 
ally faint  efforts  are  made  to  expel  them  by  burning  aromatic 
weeds,  but  such  pests  do  not  annoy  the  Chinese  a thousandth 
part  as  much  as  they  annoy  us. 

One  of  the  typical  instances  of  different  standards  of  com- 
fort is  in  the  conception  of  what  a pillow  ought  to  be.  In 
Western  lands,  a pillow  is  a bag  of  feathers  adjusted  to  sup- 
port the  head.  In  China  a pillow  is  a support  for  the  neck, 
either  a small  stool  of  bamboo,  a block  of  wood,  or  more  com- 
monly a brick.  No  Occidental  could  use  a Chinese  pillow  in 
a Chinese  way  without  torture,  and  it  is  not  less  certain  that 
no  Chinese  would  tolerate  under  his  head  for  ten  minutes  the 
bags  which  we  use  for  that  purpose. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  singular  fact  that  the  Chinese  do 
not  to  any  extent  weave  wool.  It  is  still  more  unaccountable 
that  they  take  no  apparent  interest  in  the  feathers  which  they 
pluck  in  such  vast  quantities  from  the  fowls  which  they  con- 
sume. It  would  be  exceedingly  easy  to  make  up  wadded 
bedding  by  employing  feathers,  and  the  cost  of  the  feathers 
would  be  little  or  nothing,  since  they  are  allowed  to  blow 
away  as  beneath  the  notice  even  of  the  strict  economy  of 
the  Chinese.  Yet,  aside  from  sale  to  foreigners,  we  do  not 
know  of  any  use  to  which  such  feathers  are  at  present  put,  ex- 
cept that  the  larger  ones  are  loosely  tied  to  sticks  to  serve  as 
dusters,  and  in  western  China,  feathers  are  sometimes  thickly 
sprinkled  on  growing  wheat  and  beans,  to  prevent  their  being 
eaten  by  animals  turned  out  to  forage  for  themselves. 

To  an  Occidental  the  ideal  bed  is  at  ®nce  elastic  and  firm. 


1 32 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


The  best  example  of  such  is  perhaps  that  made  from  what  is 
known  as  woven  wire,  which  in  recent  years  has  come  into 
such  general  use.  But  when  one  of  the  finest  hospitals  in 
China  was  furnished  with  these  luxurious  appliances,  the  kind- 
hearted  physician  who  had  planned  for  them  was  disgusted  to 
find  that,  as  soon  as  his  back  was  turned,  those  patients  who 
were  strong  enough  to  do  so  crawled  from  their  elastic  beds 
down  upon  the  floor,  where  they  felt  at  home! 

Chinese  houses  are  nearly  always  ill-lighted  at  night.  The 
native  vegetable  oils  are  exceedingly  disagreeable  to  the  smell, 
and  only  afford  sufficient  illumination  to  make  darkness  visi- 
ble. The  great  advantages  of  kerosene  are  indeed  recognised, 
but  in  spite  of  them  it  is  still  true  that  throughout  enormous 
areas  the  oil  made  from  beans,  cotton-seed,  and  peanuts  con- 
tinues to  be  used  long  after  kerosene  has  been  known,  simply 
from  the  force  of  conservative  inertia , backed  by  profound  in- 
difference to  the  greater  comfort  of  being  able  to  see  clearly, 
as  compared  with  being  able  to  see  scarcely  at  all. 

Chinese  furniture  strikes  a Westerner  as  being  clumsy  and 
uncomfortable.  Instead  of  the  broad  benches  on  which  our 
ancestors  used  to  recline,  the  Chinese  are  generally  content 
with  very  narrow  ones,  and  it  will  not  be  surprising  if  some  of 
the  legs  are  loose,  or  are  so  placed  as  to  tip  off  the  unwary 
person  who  seats  himself  when  there  is  no  one  at  the  other 
end.  The  Chinese  are  the  only  Asiatic  nation  usffig  chairs, 
but  according  to  our  ideas  Chinese  chairs  are  models  of  dis- 
comfort. Some  of  them  are  made  on  a pattern  which  pre- 
vailed in  England  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth  or  Queen 
Anne,  tall,  straight  of  back,  and  inordinately  angular.  The 
more  common  ones  are  shaped  so  as  to  accommodate  persons 
who  weigh  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  but  the 
strength  of  the  chairs  is  by  no  means  proportioned  to  the 
magnitude,  and  they  soon  fall  to  pieces. 

The  greatest  objections  which  Westerners  have  to  Chinese 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  133 


dwellings  are  undoubtedly  the  dampness  and  the  cold.  The 
radical  error  in  the  construction  of  buildings,  is  that  which 
economises  in  the  foundation.  The  inevitable  and  permanent 
result  is  dampness.  Floors  of  earth  or  of  imperfectly  burned 
brick  are  to  most  foreigners  not  only  sources  of  great  discom- 
fort, but  are  extremely  prejudicial  to  health.  Not  less  annoy- 
ing are  the  loose  doors,  resting  on  pivots.  The  double  leaves 
of  these  doors  admit  the  cold  air  at  each  side  at  the  top  and 
at  the  bottom.  Even  if  the  cracks  are  pasted  up  with  stout 
paper,  a door  is  but  an  imperfect  protection  against  the  bitter 
winter  weather,  because  it  is  almost  impossible  to  teach  Chinese 
to  keep  an  outside  door  shut.  The  notice  which  a business 
man  posted  on  his  office  door,  “ Everybody  shuts  the  doors 
but  you,”  would  be  a gross  falsehood  in  China,  where  nobody 
shuts  a door.  The  frames  of  doors,  both  to  houses  and  to 
yards,  are  often  made  so  low  that  a person  of  average  stature 
must  at  each  passage  either  bow  his  head  or  bump  it. 

Chinese  paper  windows  will  not  keep  out  wind,  rain,  sun, 
heat,  or  dust.  Window-shutters  are  not  very  common,  and 
when  they  exist  are  often  unused. 

Most  Chinese  houses  have  only  one  cooking-boiler,  a large 
concave  iron  bowl,  with  a capacity  of  several  gallons.  But 
one  kind  of  food  is  generally  cooked  at  a time,  and  when  a 
meal  is  in  preparation  hot  water  is  not  to  be  had.  The  stalks 
and  grass  which  are  the  fuel  must  be  incessantly  pushed  under 
the  low  kettle  by  a person  squatting  or  sprawling  in  front 
of  the  small  flue.  Almost  all  cooking  is  done  in  this  way. 
Steam  and  often  smoke  fill  the  room  to  an  extent  adapted  to 
blind  and  strangle  a foreigner,  but  the  Chinese  seem  to  be  in- 
different to  these  evils,  although  aware  that  serious  diseases 
of  the  eye  are  a common  consequence. 

A Chinese  dwelling  in  winter  always  appears  to  a Westerner 
a thesaurus  of  discomfort,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  arti- 
ficial heat.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people,  even  where  the 


134 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


winters  are  severe,  have  no  other  heat  than  that  modicum 
obtained  from  the  fuel  burned  in  cooking,  and  conveyed  to 
the  k'ang.  The  Chinese  so  highly  appreciate  the  comfort  of 
a k'ang  that  the  women  sometimes  speak  of  it  as  their  " own 
mother.”  But  while  it  is  indeed  the  point  of  minimum  dis- 
comfort in  the  establishment,  to  Occidentals  who  wish  to  feel 
positive  heat  from  some  source  diffusing  itself  in  grateful  cur- 
rents all  over  the  body,  a Chinese  k‘ang  on  a cold  night  is  a 
very  inadequate  substitute  for  the  “ chimney-corner  ” or  for 
the  stove.  In  regions  where  coal  is  accessible,  it  is  indeed 
employed  as  fuel,  but  as  compared  with  the  whole  country 
these  districts  are  very  limited,  and  the  smoke  always  escapes 
into  the  room,  which  becomes  gradually  filled  with  carbonic 
acid  gas.  Charcoal  is  very  sparingly  used  even  by  those  who 
are  in  good  circumstances,  and  the  danger  from  its  incautious 
use,  like  that  from  the  use  of  coal,  is  very  great.  The  houses 
are  so  uncomfortable  that  even  at  home  if  the  weather  is  cold 
the  inmates  often  wear  all  the  clothes  they  can  put  on.  When 
abroad  they  have  no  more  to  add.  “ Are  you  cold  ? ” we  ask 
them.  “ Of  course,”  is  the  constant  reply.  They  have  never 
been  artificially  warmed,  in  an  Occidental  sense,  during  their 
whole  lives.  In  the  winter  their  blood  seems  to  be  like  water 
in  the  rivers,  congealed  at  the  surface,  and  only  moving  with 
a sluggish  current  underneath.  Considering  these  characteris- 
tics of  Chinese  dwellings,  it  is  no  wonder  that  a certain  Taotai 
who  had  been  abroad  remarked  that  in  the  United  States 
the  prisoners  in  jail  had  quarters  more  comfortable  than  his 
yamen. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  point  out  the  Chinese  in- 
difference to  crowding  and  noise.  As  soon  as  the  weather 
becomes  cold  the  Chinese  huddle  together  as  a matter  of 
course,  in  order  to  keep  warm.  Even  in  the  depth  of  the 
dog-days,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  boats  loaded  with  such 
numbers  of  passengers  that  there  must  be  barely  room  to  sit 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  135 


or  to  lie.  No  Westerners  would  tolerate  such  crowding,  yet 
the  Chinese  do  not  appear  to  mind  it.  Occidentals  like  to 
have  their  dwellings  at  a little  distance  from  those  of  the  near- 
est neighbours,  for  ventilation  and  for  privacy.  The  Chinese 
know  nothing  either  of  ventilation  or  of  privacy,  and  they  do 
not  seem  to  appreciate  these  conditions  when  they  are  realised. 
Every  little  Chinese  village  is  built  on  the  plan  of  a city  with- 
out any  plan.  In  other  words,  the  dwellings  are  huddled  to- 
gether as  if  land  were  excessively  valuable.  The  inevitable 
effect  is  to  raise  the  price  of  land,  just  as  in  a city,  though  for 
quite  different  reasons.  Henc'fe  narrow  courts,  cramped  ac- 
commodations, unhealthful  overcrowding,  even  where  there  is 
abundant  space  to  be  had  close  at  hand  and  at  a moderate 
rate. 

A Chinese  guest  at  a Chinese  inn  enjoys  the  bustle  which 
is  concomitant  upon  the  arrival  of  a long  train  of  carts,  and 
falls  asleep  as  soon  as  he  has  bolted  his  evening  meal.  His 
fellow-traveller  from  Western  climes  lies  awake  half  the  night 
listening  to  the  champing  of  three-score  mules,  varied  by  kicks 
and  squeals  that  last  as  long  as  he  keeps  his  consciousness. 
These  sounds  are  alternated  by  the  beating  of  a huge  wooden 
rattle,  and  by  the  yelping  of  a large  force  of  dogs.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  as  many  as  fifty  donkeys  in  one  inn-yard, 
and  the  pandemonium  which  they  occasion  at  night  can  be 
but  faintly  imagined.  The  Chinese,  as  M.  Hue  has  mentioned, 
are  not  unaware  that  the  braying  of  this  animal  can  be  stopped 
by  suspending  a brick  to  its  tail,  but  repeated  inquiries  fail  to 
elicit  information  of  a single  instance  in  which  the  thing  has 
been  actually  done.  The  explanation  is  simply  that  a Chinese 
does  not  particularly  care  whether  fifty  donkeys  bray  singly, 
simultaneously,  or  not  at  all.  No  Occidental  would  be  likely 
to  remain  neutral  on  such  a question.  That  this  feeling  is  not 
confined  to  any  particular  stratum  of  the  Chinese  social  scale 
might  be  inferred  from  the  circumstance  that  the  wife  of  the 


136 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


leading  statesman  of  China  had  at  one  time  in  the  vice-regal 
yamen  about  one  hundred  cats! 

The  Buddhist  religion  is  responsible  for  the  reluctance  of 
the  Chinese  to  put  an  end  to  the  wretched  existence  of  the 
pariah  dogs  with  which  all  Chinese  cities  are  infested,  yet  the 
trait  of  character  thus  exhibited  is  not  so  much  Chinese  as 
Oriental.  Mr.  J.  Ross  Browne,  who  was  once  Minister  from 
the  United  States  to  China,  published  an  entertaining  volume 
of  travels  in  the  East,  adorned  with  drawings  of  his  own. 
One  of  these  represented  what  appeared  to  be  a congress 
of  all  varieties  of  lean  and  mangy  dogs,  which  was  offered  as 
“ a general  view  of  Constantinople.”  The  same  cut  would  do 
good  service  as  a sketch  of  many  Chinese  cities.  The  Chi- 
nese do  not  appear  to  experience  any  serious  discomfort  from 
the  reckless  and  irrepressible  barking  of  this  vast  army  of 
curs,  nor  do  they  take  much  account  of  the  really  great  dan- 
gers arising  from  mad  dogs,  which  are  not  infrequently  en- 
countered. Under  such  circumstances,  the  remedy  adopted 
is  often  that  of  binding  some  of  the  hair  of  the  dog  into  the 
wound  which  it  has  caused,  a curious  analogy  to  the  practice 
which  must  have  originated  our  proverb  that  “ the  hair  of  the 
same  dog  will  cure.”  The  death  of  the  dog  does  not  seem  to 
be  any  part  of  the  object  in  view. 

Most  of  the  instances  already  adduced  relate. to  Chinese 
indifference  to  comfort,  ft  would  not  be  difficult  to  cite  as 
many  more  which  bear  upon  disregard  of  convenience,  but  a 
few  examples  will  be  sufficient.  The  Chinese  pride  themselves 
upon  being  a literary  nation ; in  fact,  the  literary  nation  of  the 
world.  Pens,  paper,  ink,  and  ink-slabs  are  called  the  “ four 
precious  things,”  and  their  presence  constitutes  a “literary 
apartment.”  It  is  remarkable  that  not  one  of  these  four  in- 
dispensable articles  is  carried  about  the  person.  They  are 
by  no  means  sure  to  be  at  hand  when  wanted,  and  all  four 
of  them  are  utterly  useless  without  a fifth  substance,  to  wit, 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  137 

water,  which  is  required  for  rubbing  up  the  ink.  The  pen 
cannot  be  used  without  considerable  previous  manipulation  to 
soften  its  delicate  hairs ; it  is  very  liable  to  be  injured  by 
inexpert  handling,  and  lasts  but  a comparatively  short  time. 
The  Chinese  have  no  substitute  for  the  pen,  such  as  lead- 
pencils,  nor  if  they  had  them  would  they  be  able  to  keep  them 
in  repair,  since  they  have  no  penknives,  and  no  pockets  in 
which  to  carry  them.  We  have  previously  endeavoured,  in 
speaking  of  the  economy  of  the  Chinese,  to  do  justice  to  their 
great  skill  in  accomplishing  excellent  results  with  very  inade- 
quate means,  but  it  is  not  the  less  true  that  such  labour-saving 
devices  as  are  so  constantly  met  in  Western  lands  are  un- 
known in  China.  In  a modern  hotel  in  the  Occident  one 
has  but  to  push  something  or  to  pull  something  and  he  gets 
whatever  he  wants — hot  or  cold  water,  lights,  heat,  service. 
But  the  finest  hostelry  in  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  like  all  in- 
ferior places  of  accommodation,  obliges  its  guest,  whenever 
he  is  conscious  of  an  unsupplied  need,  to  go  to  the  outer  door 
of  his  apartment  and  yell  at  the  top  of  his  voice,  vainly  hop- 
ing to  be  heard  for  his  much  speaking. 

Many  articles  constantly  required  by  the  Chinese  are  not 
to  be  had  on  demand,  but  only  when  the  dealer  in  the  same 
happens  to  make  his  irregular  appearance.  At  all  other  times 
one  might  as  well  find  himself  dropped  in  the  interior  of  the 
Soudan,  so  far  as  the  supply  of.  current  wants  is  concerned. 
In  the  city  every  one  carries  a lantern  at  night,  yet  in  some 
cities,  at  least,  lanterns  are  to  be  had  only  when  the  peddler 
brings  them  around,  and  those  who  want  them  buy  at  such 
times,  as  we  do  of  a milkman  or  a dealer  in  fresh  yeast.  That 
percentage  of  the  whole  population  which  lives  in  Chinese 
cities  cannot  be  a large  one,  and  in  the  country  this  limitation 
of  traffic  is  the  rule  and  not  the  exception.  In  some  districts, 
for  example,  it  is  customary  to  sell  timber  for  house-building 
in  the  second  moon,  and  the  same  logs  are  often  dragged 


r38 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


about  the  country  from  one  large  fair  to  another,  till  they  are 
either  sold,  or  taken  back  to  their  point  of  departure.  But 
should  any  inexperienced  person  be  so  rash  as  to  wish  to  buy 
timber  in  the  fifth  moon,  he  will  soon  ascertain  why  the  wisest 
of  Orientals  remarked  that  “ there  is  a time  to  every  purpose 
under  the  heaven.” 

In  speaking  of  economy  we  have  mentioned  that  as  most 
Chinese  tools  are  not  to  be  had  in  a completed  state,  the  cus- 
tomer buys  the  parts  and  has  them  united  to  suit  himself, 
which  does  not  comport  with  our  conception  of  convenience. 

The  writer  once  instructed  a servant  to  buy  a hatchet  for 
splitting  wood.  There  was  none  to  be  had,  but  he  returned 
instead  with  fourteen  large  (imported)  horse-shoes,  which  a 
blacksmith  hammered  into  something  resembling  a miner’s 
pick,  to  which  a carpenter  affixed  a handle,  the  total  cost 
being  much  greater  than  that  of  a good  foreign  axe! 

Few  inconveniences  of  the  Celestial  Empire  make  upon  the 
Western  mind  a more  speedy  and  a more  indelible  impression 
than  the  entire  absence  of  “ sanitation.”  Whenever  there  has 
been  an  attempt  made  to  accomplish  something  in  the  way 
of  drainage,  as  in  Peking,  the  resultant  evils  are  very  much 
greater  than  those  which  they  were  designed  to  cure.  No 
matter  how  long  one  has  lived  in  China,  he  remains  in  a con- 
dition of  mental  suspense,  unable  to  decide  that  most  interest- 
ing question  so  often  raised,  Which  is  the  filthiest  city  in  the 
Empire?  A visitor  from  one  of  the  northern  provinces 
boasted  to  a resident  in  Amoy  that,  in  offensiveness  to  the 
senses,  no  city  in  south  China  could  equal  those  of  the  north. 
With  a view  to  decide  this  moot  point,  the  city  of  Amoy  was 
extensively  traversed,  and  found  to  be  unexpectedly  clean — 
that  is,  for  a Chinese  city.  Jealous  for  the  pre-eminence  of 
his  adopted  home,  the  Amoy  resident  claimed  that  he  was 
taken  at  a disadvantage,  as  a heavy  rain  had  recently  done 
much  to  wash  the  streets!  The  traveller  thinks  he  has  found 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  139 


the  worst  Chinese  city  when  he  has  inspected  Foochow;  he 
is  certain  of  it  when  he  visits  Ningpo,  and  doubly  sure  on 
arriving  in  Tientsin.  Yet,  after  all,  it  will  not  be  strange  if  he 
heartily  recants  when  he  reviews  with  candour  and  impartiality 
the  claims  of  Peking! 

The  three  points  upon  which  the  Occidental  mind  is  sure 
to  lay  principal  stress  when  contemplating  the  inconveniences 
of  Chinese  civilisation,  are  the  absence  of  postal  facilities,  the 
state  of  the  roads,  and  the  condition  of  the  currency.  Private 
companies  do  of  course  exist,  by  which  letters  and  parcels 
may  be  transmitted  from  certain  places  in  China  to  certain 
other  places,  but  their  functions  are  exceedingly  limited,  and 
compared  with  the  whole  Empire,  the  areas  which  they  accom- 
modate are  but  trifling.  Of  Chinese  roads  we  have  already 
spoken,  when  discussing  the  absence  of  public  spirit.  There 
is  a road  many  miles  in  length  cut  through  a mountain  in 
Shantung,  which  is  so  narrow  that  carts  cannot  pass  one  an- 
other. Guards  are  stationed  at  each  end,  and  traffic  is  only 
allowed  in  one  direction  in  the  forenoon,  and  in  the  other 
during  the  afternoon!  It  is  because  the  Chinese  costume — 
especially  Chinese  shoes — is  what  has  been  described,  and 
because  Chinese  roads  are  what  we  know  them  to  be,  that 
whenever  the  weather  is  bad  the  Chinese  confine  themselves 
to  their  dwellings.  In  Western  lands  we  speak  of  an  unintelli- 
gent person  as  one  who  does  not  know  enough  to  go  in  when 
it  rains,  but  in  China  one  should  rather  say  of  such  a person 
that  he  does  not  know  enough  to  stay  in  when  it  rains. 

One  of  the  most  common  characters  in  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage, used  to  denote  imperative  necessity , is  composed  of  two 
parts,  which  signify  “ stopped  by  the  rain.”  With  the  possible 
exception  of  official  service,  the  idea  that  any  human  being 
has  functions  the  discharge  of  which  can  be  harmonised  with 
the  rapid  precipitation  of  moisture  in  the  outer  atmosphere,  is 
one  that  can  only  be  introduced  to  most  Chinese  skulls  by  a 


140 


CHINESE  CHARA  C TERIS  TICS 


process  of  trepanning.  Not  even  public  business  is  necessarily 
urgent,  the  proverb  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  We 
have  heard  of  a Chinese  fort  of  undoubted  strength,  in  a most 
important  position,  armed  with  the  most  elaborate  muniments 
of  war,  such  as  Krupp  guns,  and  provided  with  foreign  drilled 
troops,  where  on  occasion  of  a rain  every  one  of  the  sentries 
judiciously  retired  to  the  guard-houses,  leaving  not  a single 
man  anywhere  in  sight.  They  were  “stopped  by  the  rain”! 
The  Tientsin  massacre  of  1870  might  have  been  quadrupled 
in  atrocity,  but  for  a timely  rain  which  deterred  the  despera- 
does already  on  their  way  to  the  Settlement.  A portable 
shower  would  be  one  of  the  most  perfect  defences  which  a 
foreign  traveller  in  the  hostile  parts  of  China  could  desire. 
We  are  confident  that  a steady  stream  of  cold  water  delivered 
from  a two-inch  nozzle  would,  within  five  minutes  of  solar 
time,  disperse  the  most  violent  mob  ever  seen  by  a foreigner 
in  China.  Grape-shot  would  be  far  less  effectual,  for  many 
would  stop  to  gather  up  the  spent  shot,  while  cold  water  is 
something  for  which  every  Chinese  from  the  Han  Dynasty 
downwards  entertains  the  same  aversion  as  does  a cat.  Ex- 
ternally or  internally  administered,  he  regards  it  as  equally 
fatal. 

The  subject  of  Chinese  currency  demands  not  a brief  para- 
graph, but  a comprehensive  essay,  or  rather  a volume.  Its 
chaotic  eccentricities  would  drive  any  Occidental  nation  to 
madness  in  a single  generation,  or  more  probably  such  gigantic 
evils  would  speedily  work  their  own  cure.  In  speaking  of  the 
disregard  of  accuracy  we  have  mentioned  a few  of  the  more 
prominent  annoyances.  A hundred  cash  are  not  a hundred, 
and  a thousand  cash  are  not  a thousand,  but  some  other  and 
totally  uncertain  number,  to  be  ascertained  only  by  experience. 
In  wide  regions  of  the  Empire  one  cash  counts  for  two ; that 
is,  it  does  so  in  numbers  above  twenty,  so  that  when  one  hears 
that  he  is  to  be  paid  five  hundred  cash  he  understands  that  he 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  141 


will  receive  two  hundred  and  fifty  pieces,  less  the  local  abate- 
ment, which  perpetually  shifts  in  different  places.  There  is 
a constant  intermixture  of  small  or  spurious  cash,  leading  to 
inevitable  disputes  between  dealers  in  any  commodity.  At 
irregular  intervals  the  local  magistrates  become  impressed  with 
the  evil  of  this  debasement  of  the  currency,  and  issue  stem 
proclamations  against  it.  This  gives  the  swarm  of  underlings 
in  the  magistrate’s  yamen  an  opportunity  to  levy  squeezes  on 
all  the  cash-shops  in  the  district,  and  to  make  the  transaction 
of  all  business  more  or  less  difficult.  Prices  at  once  rise  to 
meet  the  temporary  necessity  for  pure  cash.  As  soon  as  the 
paying  ore  in  this  vein  is  exhausted — and  it  is  not  worked  to 
any  extent — the  bad  cash  returns,  but  prices  do  not  fall.  Thus 
the  irrepressible  law  by  which  the  worse  currency  drives  out 
the  better,  is  never  for  an  instant  suspended.  The  condition 
of  the  cash  becomes  worse  and  worse,  until,  as  in  some  parts 
of  the  province  of  Honan,  every  one  goes  to  market  with  two 
entirely  distinct  sets  of  cash,  one  of  which  is  the  ordinary  mix- 
ture of  good  with  bad,  and  the  other  is  composed  exclusively 
of  counterfeit  pieces.  Certain  articles  are  paid  for  with  the 
spurious  cash  only.  But  in  regard  to  other  commodities,  this 
is  matter  of  special  bargain,  and  accordingly  there  is  for  these 
articles  a double  market  price. 

Chinese  cash  is  emphatically  “ filthy  lucre.”  It  cannot  be 
handled  without  contamination.  The  strings,  of  five  hun- 
dred or  a thousand  (nominal)  pieces,  are  exceedingly  liable  to 
break,  which  involves  great  trouble  in  recounting  and  re-tying. 
There  is  no  uniformity  of  weight  in  the  current  copper  cash, 
but  all  is  both  bulky  and  heavy.  Cash  to  the  value  of  a 
Mexican  dollar  weigh  not  less  than  eight  pounds  avoirdupois. 
A few  hundred  cash  are  all  that  any  one  can  carry  about  in 
the  little  bags  which  are  suspended  for  this  purpose  from  the 
girdle.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  a larger  sum  than  a few  strings, 
the  transportation  becomes  a serious  matter.  The  losses  on 


142 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


transactions  in  ingots  of  silver  are  always  great,  and  the  per- 
son who  uses  them  is  inevitably  cheated  both  in  buying  and 
in  selling.  If  he  employs  the  bills  of  cash-shops,  the  difficulty 
is  not  greatly  relieved,  since  those  of  one  region  are  either 
wholly  uncurrent  in  another  region  not  far  away,  or  will  be 
taken  only  at  a heavy  discount,  while  the  person  who  at  last 
takes  them  to  be  redeemed  has  in  prospect  a certain  battle 
with  the  harpies  of  the  shop  by  which  the  bills  were  issued,  as 
to  the  quality  of  the  cash  which  is  to  be  paid  for  them.  Under 
these  grave  disabilities,  the  wonder  is  that  the  Chinese  are 
able  to  do  any  business  at  all ; and  yet,  as  we  daily  perceive, 
they  are  so  accustomed  to  these  annoyances  that  their  burden 
appears  scarcely  felt,  and  the  only  serious  complaint  on  this 
score  comes  from  foreigners. 

It  is  very  common  for  the  traveller  through  a Chinese  village 
to  see  a donkey  lying  at  full  length,  and  attached  to  a post  by 
a strong  strap  passed  about  his  neck.  But  instead  of  adjusting 
himself  to  the  length  of  his  strap,  the  beast  frequently  drags 
himself  to  the  utmost  limit  of  his  tether,  and  reclines  with  his 
head  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  his  neck  stretched  in 
such  a way  as  to  threaten  the  dislocation  of  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrae. We  wonder  why  he  does  not  break  his  neck,  and  still 
more  what  pleasure  there  can  be  in  the  apparent  attempt  to 
do  so.  No  Occidental  donkey  would  behave  in  such  a way. 
The  reader  who  has  followed  us  thus  far  through  these  in- 
adequate illustrations  of  our  topic  will  bear  in  mind  that  the 
Chinese  race,  though  apparently  in  a condition  of  semi-strangu- 
lation, seems  to  itself  comparatively  comfortable,  which  is  but 
to  say  that  the  Chinese  standard  of  comfort  and  convenience, 
and  the  standard  to  which  we  are  accustomed,  are  widely 
variant,  which  is  the  proposition  with  which  we  began.  The 
Chinese  has  learned  to  accommodate  himself  to  his  environ- 
ment. To  such  inconveniences  as  he  encounters,  he  submits 

\ 

with  exemplary  patience,  well  knowing  them  to  be  inevitable. 


INDIFFERENCE  TO  COMFORT  AND  CONVENIENCE  14 3 


It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  persons  who  have  considerable 
acquaintance  with  the  Chinese  and  their  ways,  especially  in 
the  aspects  to  which  our  attention  has  just  been  drawn,  affirm 
that  the  Chinese  are  not  civilised.  This  very  superficial  and 
erroneous  judgment  is  due  to  an  unphilosophical  confounding 
of  civilisation  and  comfort.  In  considering  the  present  condi- 
tion of  China,  which  is  much  what  it  was  three  centuries  ago, 
it  is  well  to  look  upon  the  changes  through  which  we  ourselves 
have  passed,  for  thus  only  can  we  arrive  at  a just  comparison. 
We  cannot  think  of  the  England  of  Milton,  Shakespeare,  and 
Elizabeth  as  an  uncivilised  country,  but  nothing  is  more  cer- 
tain than  that  to  the  most  of  us  it  would  now  prove  to  be 
intolerable. 

It  is  superfluous  to  allude  to  the  manifold  and  complex 
causes  which  have  brought  about  such  astonishing  changes  in 
the  British  Islands  within  the  past  three  centuries.  Yet  more 
wonderful  is  the  radical  revolution  which  within  the  last  fifty 
years  has  taken  place  in  the  standard  of  comfort  and  con- 
venience. If  we  were  compelled  to  return  to  the  crude  ways 
of  our  great-grandfathers  and  grandfathers,  it  might  be  a ques- 
tion whether  life  for  us  would  be  worth  living.  Times  have 
changed,  and  we  have  changed  with  them.  In  China,  on  the 
contrary,  times  have  not  changed,  and  neither  have  the  peo- 
ple. The  standard  of  comfort  and  convenience  is  the  same 
now  as  it  has  been  for  centuries.  When  new  conditions  arise, 
these  standards  will  inevitably  alter.  That  they  will  ever  be 
the  same  as  those  to  which  we  have  become  accustomed  is, 
however,  to  be  neither  expected  nor  desired. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


PHYSICAL  VITALITY 


HAT  physical  vitality  which  forms  so  important  a back- 


-L  ground  for  other  Chinese  characteristics,  deserves  con- 
sideration by  itself.  It  may  be  regarded  in  four  aspects:  the 
reproductive  power  of  the  Chinese  race,  its  adaptation  to  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  its  longevity,  and  its  recuperative  power. 

The  first  impression  which  the  traveller  derives  from  the 
phenomena  of  Chinese  life  is  that  of  redundance.  China 
seems  to  be  full  of  people.  It  seems  to  be  so  because  it  is  so. 
Japan,  too,  appears  to  have  a large  population,  but  it  does 
not  take  a very  discriminating  eye  to  perceive  that  the  dense 
population  of  Japan  bears  no  proportion  to  the  dense  popula- 
tion of  China.  In  respect  of  relative  and  absolute  density  of 
population,  China  more  nearly  resembles  India  than  any  other 
country.  But  the  people  and  the  languages  of  India  are 
many  and  various,  while  the  people  of  China,  with  some 
exceptions  not  materially  affecting  the  issue,  are  one  and  the 
same.  This  first  impression  of  a redundant  population  is 
everywhere  confirmed,  no  matter  in  what  portion  of  this  broad 
Empire  we  set  our  foot.  Where  the  population  is  in  reality 
sparse,  this  is  generally  found  to  be  due  to  causes  which  are 
susceptible  of  easy  explanation.  The  terrible  inroads  of  the 
great  T'aip'ing  rebellion,  followed  by  the  only  less  destructive 
Mohammedan  rebellion,  and  by  the  almost  unparalleled  famine 
of  1877-78,  extending  over  five  provinces,  reduced  the  total 
population  of  China,  perhaps  by  many  scores  of  millions.  The 


PHYSICAL  VITALITY 


*45 


devastations  due  to  war  are  not  so  soon  repaired  to  the  eye  as 
they  would  be  in  Western  lands,  owing  to  the  great  reluctance 
of  the  Chinese  to  leave  their  ancestral  homes  and  go  into  new 
regions.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  the 
forces  of  waste,  no  matter  how  devastating,  are  not  so  power- 
ful as  the  forces  of  repair.  With  a few  decades  of  peace  and 
good  crops,  almost  any  part  of  China  would,  we  think,  recu- 
perate from  the  disasters  which  during  this  century  have  come 
in  such  battalions.  The  provision  for  this  recuperation  is 
visible  to  every  one,  and  forces  itself  upon  his  notice  whether 
he  does  or  does  not  desire  to  contemplate  it.  In  any  part  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  the  most  conspicuous  objects  in  the  towns 
and  villages  are  the  troops  of  Chinese  children,  with  which,  as 
Charles  Lamb  says  in  his  deprecation  of  the  pride  of  over- 
proud  mothers,  “every  blind  alley  swarms.”  It  is  one  of  the 
standing  marvels  of  Chinese  society  by  what  means  such  a 
vast  army  of  little  ones  is  fed  and  clothed,  and  it  must  be 
well  borne  in  mind  that  many  of  them  are  not  “ fed  and 
clothed  ” to  any  extent ; in  other  words,  that  the  most  ex- 
treme poverty  does  not  apparently  tend  to  diminish  Chinese 
population. 

The  only  permanent  and  effective  check  upon  the  rapid 
increase  of  the  Chinese  population  appears  to  be  the  confirmed 
use  of  opium,  a foe  to  the  Chinese  race  as  deadly  as  war, 
famine,  or  pestilence.  It  is  by  no  means  necessary,  in  order 
to  receive  a high  idea  of  the  multiplying  power  of  the  Chinese, 
to  assume  the  existence  in  China  of  a population  far  vaster  in 
numbers  than  that  of  any  other  country.  Even  if  we  take  the 
lowest  estimate  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions,  the 
point  is  abundantly  established,  for  the  question  is  not  one  of 
the  mere  number  of  people,  but  of  the  rate  of  increase.  In 
the  absence  of  trustworthy  statistics,  we  must  be  content  to 
come  at  conclusions  in  a general  and  inexact  way ; but  fortu- 
nately in  this  matter  it  is  almost  impossible  to  go  wrong.  The 


I46  CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 

Chinese  marry  at  a very  early  age,  and  the  desire  for  posterity 
is  the  one  ruling  passion  in  which,  next  to  the  love  of  money, 
the  Chinese  race  is  most  agreed. 

Contrast  the  apparent  growth  of  the  Chinese  at  any  point, 
with  the  condition  of  the  population  in  France,  where  the  rate 
of  increase  is  the  lowest  in  all  Europe,  and  where  the  latest 
returns  show  an  absolute  decrease  in  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants. Such  facts  have  excited  the  gravest  fears  as  to  the 
future  of  that  great  country.  The  Chinese,  on  the  other  hand, 
show  no  more  signs  of  race  decay  than  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
The  earliest  recorded  command  given  by  God  to  mankind 
was  that  in  which  they  were  instructed  to  “ be  fruitful  and 
multiply  and  replenish  the  earth.”  That  command,  as  a 
learned  professor  once  remarked,  “ has  been  obeyed,  and  it  is 
the  only  command  of  God  that  has  been  obeyed,”  and  of  no 
country  is  this  more  true  than  of  China. 

The  Chinese  Empire,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to 
remark,  extends  through  a great  area  in  latitude  and  longi- 
tude, and  embraces  within  itself  almost  every  variety  of  soil, 
climate,  and  production.  So  far  as  appears,  the  Chinese 
flourish  equally  in  the  subtropical  region,  the  subarctic  region, 
or  anywhere  between.  Whatever  differences  are  observed 
seem  to  be  due  to  the  character  of  the  region  itself  and  its 
capacity  to  sustain  the  population,  rather  than  to  any  inherent 
difference  in  the  capacity  of  the  people  to  adapt  themselves 
to  one  region  rather  than  to  another.  The  emigrating  por- 
tions of  the  Chinese  people  come  from  a relatively  minute 
area  in  the  provinces  of  Kuangtung  and  Fukien,  but  wherever 
they  go,  to  India,  Burma,  Siam,  the  East  Indies,  the  Pacific 
Islands,  Australasia,  Mexico,  the  United  States,  the  West  In- 
dies, Central  America,  or  South  America,  we  never  hear  that 
they  fail  to  adapt  themselves  with  wonderful  and  immediate 
success  to  their  environment,  whatever  it  may  chance  to  be. 
What  we  do  hear,  however,  is  that  their  adaptation  is  so  quick 


PHYSICAL  VITALITY 


*47 


and  so  perfect,  their  industry  and  their  economy  so  in  excess 
of  those  of  the  natives  of  these  lands,  their  solidarity  and  their 
power  of  mutual  cohesion  so  phenomenal,  that  it  is  necessary 
for  the  security  of  the  remainder  of  the  human  race  that  “ the 
Chinese  must  go!  ” Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  certainly 
most  fortunate  for  the  peace  of  mind  of  that  portion  of  man- 
kind which  is  not  Chinese,  that  this  people  does  not  as  a whole 
take  to  emigration  on  a large  scale.  If  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Asiatic  continent  were  now  as  full  of  irrepressible  human 
beings,  longing  to  turn  their  energies  towards  the  rest  of  the 
planet,  as  was  Central  Asia  in  the  middle  ages,  it  is  hard  to 
see  what  would  become  either  of  us,  or  of  our  doctrine  that 
the  fittest  only  survive. 

The  utter  absence  of  any  kind  of  statistics  renders  it  im- 
possible to  speak  of  the  longevity  of  the  Chinese  people  in 
any  other  than  the  most  general  way.  Probably  all  observers 
would  agree  in  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  part  of  China 
in  which  old  people  are  not  exceedingly  numerous.  The 
aged  are  always  treated  with  great  respect,  and  old  age  is 
held  to  be  an  exceedingly  great  honour,  and  is  reckoned  as 
the  foremost  of  the  five  varieties  of  felicity.  The  extreme 
care  which  is  taken  to  preserve  accurate  records  of  the  date 
of  birth,  down  to  the  precise  hour,  tends  to  precision  of  state- 
ment when  there  is  any  occasion  for  such  precision,  albeit  the 
ordinary  method  of  counting,  as  has  been  mentioned,  is  so 
loose  and  inaccurate.  The  testimony  of  graveyard  tablets  is 
in  favour  of  a considerable  degree  of  longevity  among  the 
common  people,  but  except  in  the  vicinity  of  supplies  of  stone 
these  tablets  are  found  over  only  a few  graves,  so  that,  what- 
ever inferences  might  otherwise  be  drawn  from  them  as  wit- 
nesses, the  tablets  are  practically  valueless. 

It  is  not  common  to  hear  of  Chinese  who  are  more  than  a 
hundred  years  of  age,  but  short  of  that  limit  the  numbers 
of  very  aged  who  could  anywhere  be  collected,  if  sufficient 


148 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


inducement  were  offered,  we  must  consider  as  very  large. 
Indeed,  when  the  exceedingly  imperfect  nutrition  of  the  poor, 
who  constitute  so  large  a part  of  the  population  of  China,  is 
taken  into  account,  it  becomes  a wonder  how  such  numbers 
of  people  survive  to  so  great  an  age.  It  is  well  known  that 
in  all  Western  lands  throughout  the  present  century  the  aver- 
age duration  of  life  has  been  constantly  rising.  This  is  due  to 
the  increased  attention  paid  to  the  laws  of  life,  to  improved 
means  of  preventing  disease,  and  to  better  means  of  treating 
it.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  China,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  conditions  of  life  do  not  seem  to  vary  greatly  from  what 
they  were  when  Columbus  discovered  America.  If  social  and 
medical  science  could  do  for  China  what  has  been  done  for 
England  within  the  past  fifty  years,  the  number  of  very  old 
people  in  the  former  country  would  certainly  be  very  greatly 
increased. 

The  complete  ignorance  of  the  laws  of  hygiene  which 
characterises  almost  all  Chinese,  and  their  apparent  contempt 
for  those  laws  even  when  apprehended,  are  well  known  to  all 
foreigners  who  live  in  China.  To  a foreign  observer  it  is  a 
standing  problem  why  the  various  diseases  which  this  igno- 
rance and  defiance  of  natural  laws  invite,  do  not  exterminate 
the  Chinese  altogether.  While  vast  numbers  of  people  do  die 
every  year  in  China  of  diseases  which  are  entirely  preventable, 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  such  persons  is  not  indefinitely 
greater  argues  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  a marvellous  capac- 
ity to  resist  disease  and  to  recover  from  it.  The  readiness  of 
Chinese  to  throw  away  their  lives  on  very  slight  provocation 
is  a characteristic  as  marked  as  the  tenacity  of  their  hold  upon 
them. 

In  the  total  absence  of  those  vital  statistics  to  which  we 
have  already  so  often  regretfully  referred,  we  are  obliged  to 
depend  upon  the  recorded  observations  of  foreigners,  which, 
owing  to  the  constantly  increasing  number  of  foreign  dispen- 


PHYSICAL  VITALITY 


149 


saries  and  hospitals,  are  becoming  year  by  year  more  numerous 
and  more  valuable. 

To  analyse  and  tabulate  the  medical  reports  issued  even 
in  a single  year,  with  a view  to  illustrating  the  recuperative 
power  of  the  Chinese,  would  be  a most  useful  task,  and  the 
result  would  certainly  present  the  object  in  a fresh  and  forci- 
ble manner.  We  must,  however,  be  content  with  the  mere 
statement  of  a few  cases,  by  way  of  illustration,  two  of  which 
occurred  within  the  knowledge  of  the  writer,  while  the  third 
is  taken  from  the  published  reports  of  a large  hospital  in 
Tientsin.  The  whole  force  of  instances  of  this  sort  depends 
upon  the  undoubted  fact  that  they  are  by  no  means  iso- 
lated and  altogether  exceptional  cases,  but  are  such  as  could 
be  matched  by  the  observation  of  very  many  of  our  readers. 

Several  years  ago,  while  living  in  a house  with  a Chinese 
family,  the  writer  heard  one  afternoon  the  most  dismal  screams 
under  the  window,  where  was  placed  a large  beehive,  made  of 
adobe  bricks,  and  open  at  the  bottom.  A little  boy  fourteen 
months  of  age  was  playing  in  the  yard,  and  seeing  this  open- 
ing into  what  looked  like  a convenient  play-house,  had  inju- 
diciously crawled  in.  The  child’s  head  was  shaved  perfectly 
bare,  and  was  very  red.  The  bees,  either  resenting  the  un- 
usual intrusion,  or  mistaking  the  bald  pate  for  a huge  peony, 
promptly  lit  upon  the  head  and  began  to  sting.  Before  he 
could  be  removed  the  child  had  received  more  than  thirty 
stings.  The  child  cried  but  a few  moments,  and  then,  being 
laid  on  the  k‘ang,  went  to  sleep.  No  medicine  of  any  sort 
being  at  hand,  nothing  was  applied  to  the  skin.  During  the 
night  the  child  was  perfectly  quiet,  and  the  next  day  no  trace 
of  the  swelling  remained. 

In  the  year  1878  a carter  in  the  employ  of  a foreign  family 
in  Peking  was  taken  with  the  prevalent  typhus  fever,  of  which 
so  many  died.  On  the  thirteenth  day,  when  the  disease 
reached  a crisis,  the  patient,  who  had  been  very  ill  indeed, 


*5° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


became  exceedingly  violent,  exhibiting  the  strength  of  several 
men.  Three  persons  were  deputed  to  watch  him,  all  of  whom 
were  exhausted  with  their  labours.  During  the  night  of  this 
day  the  patient  was  tied  to  the  bed  to  prevent  his  escape. 
While  the  watchers  were  all  asleep  he  contrived  to  loosen  the 
cords  with  which  he  was  bound,  and  escaped  from  the  house 
perfectly  naked.  He  was  missed  at  about  3 a.m.,  and  the 
whole  premises  were  searched,  including  the  wells,  into  which 
it  was  feared  he  might  have  plunged.  He  was  traced  to  the 
wall  of  the  compound,  which  was  nine  or  ten  feet  in  height, 
and  which  he  had  scaled  by  climbing  a tree.  He  leaped  or 
fell  to  the  ground  on  the  outer  side  of  this  wall,  and  at  once 
made  his  way  to  the  moat  just  inside  the  great  wall  which 
separates  the  Tartar  city  of  Peking  from  the  Chinese  city. 
Here  he  was  found  two  hours  later,  his  head  wedged  fast  be- 
tween the  upright  iron  bars  which  prevent  passage  through 
the  culvert  under  the  wall.  As  he  had  passionately  demanded 
to  be  taken  to  this  place  to  cool  his  fever,  it  was  evident  that 
he  had  been  in  this  situation  for  a great  length  of  time.  On 
being  taken  home,  his  fever  was  found  to  be  thoroughly 
broken,  and  though  troubled  with  rheumatism  in  the  legs,  he 
made  a slow  but  sure  recovery. 

A Tientsin  man,  about  thirty  years  of  age,  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  making  a living  by  collecting  spent  shells  around  the 
ground  where  Chinese  troops  were  engaged  in  artillery  prac- 
tice. On  one  occasion  he  secured  a shell,  when,  on  attempt- 
ing to  break  it  open,  it  exploded  and  blew  off  his  left  leg. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  hospital,  and  an  amputation  was  per- 
formed below  the  knee.  Instead  of  being  cured  of  this  dan- 
gerous mode  of  getting  a precarious  living,  the  man  returned 
to  it  again  as  soon  as  possible,  and  about  six  months  later, 
under  similar  circumstances,  another  explosion  took  place, 
which  blew  off  his  left  hand  about  two  inches  above  the  wrist, 
leaving  a ragged  wound.  The  upper  portion  of  the  right  arm 


PHYSICAL  VITALITY 


IS* 

was  severely  singed  by  powder.  Deep  lacerations  took  place 
over  the  bridge  of  the  nose  and  on  the  upper  lip ; punctured 
wounds,  the  result  of  exploding  pieces  of  shell,  were  made  on 
the  right  cheek,  on  the  right  upper  eyelid,  on  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  frontal  bone,  and  on  the  right  wrist.  There  was 
also  a deep  cut  over  the  right  tibia,  exposing  the  bone.  On 
receiving  these  severe  injuries  the  man  lay  in  a semi-uncon- 
scious and  helpless  condition  for  four  hours,  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  A mandarin  happening  to  see  him,  ordered 
some  coolies  to  carry  him  to  the  hospital,  himself  accompany- 
ing them  for  two  miles.  The  bearers  apparently  became  tired 
of  their  burden,  and  as  soon  as  the  mandarin  was  gone,  threw 
the  poor  wretch  into  a ditch  to  die.  Though  much  exhausted 
by  the  haemorrhage,  he  managed  to  crawl  out  and  hop  for  five 
hundred  yards  to  a grain-shop,  where  he  found  a large  basket 
of  meal,  which  he  overturned  with  his  sound  arm  and  coiled 
himself  inside.  To  get  rid  of  him  the  owners  of  the  shop 
carried  him  in  the  basket  to  the  hospital  gates,  where  he  was 
left  outside  to  die.  Although  in  a condition  of  extreme  col- 
lapse, and  with  a feeble  pulse,  due  to  the  loss  of  so  much 
blood,  the  patient  had  no  mental  impairment  and  was  able  to 
converse  intelligibly.  He  had  been  addicted  to  opium  smok- 
ing, a circumstance  which  could  not  have  been  favourable  to 
recovery.  Yet  with  the  exception  of  diarrhoea  on  the  fifth 
and  sixth  days,  and  slight  attacks  of  malaria,  the  patient  had 
throughout  no  bad  symptoms,  and  left  the  hospital  with  a 
wooden  leg  four  weeks  after  his  admission. 

If  a people  with  such  physical  endowments  as  the  Chinese 
were  to  be  preserved  from  the  effects  of  war,  famines,  pesti- 
lence, and  opium,  and  if  they  were  to  pay  some  attention  to 
the  laws  of  physiology  and  of  hygiene,  and  to  be  uniformly 
nourished  with  suitable  food,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  they 
alone  would  be  adequate  to  occupy  the  principal  part  of  the 
planet  and  more. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE. 

THE  term  “patience”  embraces  three  quite  different  mean- 
ings. It  is  the  act  or  quality  of  expecting  long,  without 
complaint,  anger,  or  discontent.  It  is  the  power  or  the  act  of 
suffering  or  bearing  quietly  or  with  equanimity  any  evil — calm 
endurance.  It  is  also  employed  as  a synonym  of  persever- 
ance. That  the  group  of  qualities  to  which  reference  is  here 
made  has  a very  important  bearing  on  the  life  of  the  people 
to  whom  they  belong,  is  obvious  at  a glance.  The  disadvan- 
tage arising  from  a separate  and  a distinct  examination  of 
individual  Chinese  characteristics  is  nowhere  more  obvious 
than  in  the  consideration  of  the  qualities  of  patience  and  per- 
severance. These  characteristics  of  the  Chinese  are  insep- 
arably connected  with  their  comparative  “ absence  of  nerves,” 
with  their  “ disregard  of  time,”  and  especially  with  that  quality 
of  “ industry  ” by  which  the  national  patience  and  persever- 
ance are  most  conspicuously  and  most  effectively  illustrated. 
What  has  been  already  said  upon  these  topics  will  have  served 
to  suggest  one  of  the  chief  virtues  in  the  Chinese  character, 
but  the  necessarily  desultory  treatment  involved  in  such  inci- 
dental mention  deserves  to  be  supplemented  by  a more  com- 
prehensive presentation. 

Among  a dense  population  like  that  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
life  is  often  reduced  to  its  very  lowest  terms,  and  those  terms 
are  literally  a “struggle  for  existence.”  In  order  to  live,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  the  means  of  living,  and  those  means  each 

152 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE 


*53 


must  obtain  for  himself  as  best  he  can.  The  Chinese  have 
been  well  said  to  “ reduce  poverty  to  a science.”  Deep  pov- 
erty and  a hard  struggle  for  the  means  of  existence  will  of 
themselves  never  make  any  human  being  industrious ; but  if  a 
man  or  a race  is  endowed  with  the  instinct  of  industry,  these 
are  the  conditions  which  will  tend  most  effectually  to  develop 
industry.  The  same  conditions  will  also  tend  to  the  devel- 
opment of  economy,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a prominent 
Chinese  quality.  These  conditions  also  develop  patience  and 
perseverance.  The  hunter  and  the  fisherman,  who  know  that 
their  livelihood  depends  upon  the  stealth  and  wariness  of  their 
movements,  and  the  patience  with  which  they  wait  for  their 
opportunity,  will  be  stealthy,  wary,  and  patient,  no  matter 
whether  they  happen  to  belong  to  the  races  of  mankind  classed 
as  “ civilised,”  to  those  called  “ semi-civilised,”  or  to  those 
known  as  “savage.”  The  Chinese  have  for  ages  been  hunt- 
ing for  a living  under  conditions  frequently  the  most  adverse, 
and  they  have  thus  learned  to  combine  the  active  industry 
of  the  most  civilised  peoples  with  the  passive  patience  of  the 
North  American  Indian. 

The  Chinese  are  willing  to  labour  a very  long  time  for  very 
small  rewards,  because  small  rewards  are  much  better  than 
none.  Ages  of  experience  have  taught  them  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  make  industry  a stepping-stone  to  those  wider  op- 
portunities which  we  of  the  West  have  come  to  look  upon  as 
its  natural  results.  They  are  “ natural  ” results  only  in  the 
sense  that  when  appropriate  conditions  are  found  these  results 
will  follow.  A population  of  five  hundred  to  the  square  mile, 
it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  is  not  one  of  the  conditions 
adapted  to  lead  to  practical  verification  of  the  adage  that  in- 
dustry and  economy  are  the  two  hands  of  fortune.  But  the 
Chinese  is  content  to  toil  on  for  such  rewards  as  he  may  be 
able  to  get,  and  in  this  contentment  he  illustrates  his  virtue 
of  patience. 


1 54 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


It  is  related  of  the  late  General  Grant,  that  on  his  return 
from  his  trip  around  the  globe,  he  was  asked  what  was  the 
most  remarkable  thing  that  he  saw.  He  replied  at  once  that 
the  most  extraordinary  sight  which  he  anywhere  beheld  was 
the  spectacle  of  a petty  Chinese  dealer  by  his  keen  competi- 
tion driving  out  a Jew.  There  was  great  significance  in  the 
observation.  The  qualities  of  Jewish  people  are  by  this  time 
well  known,  and  have  led  to  most  surprising  results,  but  the 
Jews  are  after  all  but  a small  part  of  the  human  race.  The 
Chinese,  on  the  other  hand,  are  a considerable  percentage  of 
the  whole  population  of  the  planet.  The  Jew  who  was  driven 
out  by  the  Chinese  did  not  presumptively  differ  in  any  essen- 
tial respect  from  any  other  Jew.  The  result  of  the  competi- 
tion would  probably  have  been  the  same  though  the  competi- 
tors had  been  different  in  their  identity,  for  it  is  morally  certain 
that  the  successful  Chinese  did  not  differ  in  any  essential  par- 
ticular from  millions  of  other  Chinese  who  might  have  chanced 
to  be  in  his  situation. 

It  is  in  his  staying  qualities  that  the  Chinese  excels  the 
world.  Of  that  quiet  persistence  which  impels  a Chinese 
student  to  keep  on  year  after  year  attending  the  examinations, 
until  he  either  takes  his  degree  at  the  age  of  ninety  or  dies  in 
the  effort,  mention  has  been  already  made.  No  rewards  that 
are  likely  to  ensue,  nor  any  that  are  possible,  will  of  themselves 
account  for  this  extraordinary  perseverance.  It  is  a part  of 
that  innate  endowment  with  which  the  Chinese  are  equipped, 
and  is  analogous  to  the  fleetness  of  the  deer  or  the  keen  sight 
of  the  eagle.  A similar  quality  is  observed  in  the  meanest 
beggar  at  a shop  door.  He  is  not  a welcome  visitor,  albeit 
so  frequent  in  his  appearances.  But  his  patience  is  unfailing, 
and  his  perseverance  invariably  wins  its  modest  reward,  a 
single  brass  cash. 

There  is  a story  of  an  Arab  whose  turban  was  stolen  by 
some  unknown  person,  upon  which  the  loser  of  this  important 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE 


1 55 


article  of  apparel  promptly  betook  himself  to  the  tribal  burial- 
place  and  seated  himself  at  the  entrance.  Upon  being  asked 
his  reason  for  this  strange  behaviour,  and  why  he  did  not  pur- 
sue the  thief,  he  made  the  calm  and  characteristically  Oriental 
reply,  “ He  must  come  here  at  last!  ” One  is  not  infrequently 
reminded  of  this  exaggeration  of  passive  persistence,  not  only 
in  the  behaviour  of  individual  Chinese,  but  in  the  acts  of 
the  government  as  well.  The  long  and  splendid  reign  of  the 
Emperor  K'ang  Hsi,  lasting  from  1662  until  1723,  made  his 
name  more  celebrated  than  that  of  any  other  Asiatic  monarch. 
Yet  it  was  in  the  reign  of  this  greatest  of  Chinese  rulers  that 
the  Chinese  patriotic  pirate,  known  under  the  name  of  Kox- 
inga,  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  provinces  of  Kuangtung  and 
Fukien  to  such  a degree  that  the  government  junks  were 
totally  unable  to  cope  with  him.  Under  these  circumstances, 
K'ang  Hsi  hit  upon  the  happy  expedient  of  ordering  all  the 
people  inhabiting  this  extended  coast  line  to  retire  into  the 
interior  to  a distance  of  thirty  li,  or  about  nine  miles,  at  which 
point  they  were  inaccessible  even  to  such  stout  attacks  as  this 
adherent  of  the  old  order  of  things  was  able  to  make.  This 
strange  command  was  generally  obeyed,  and  was  quite  suc- 
cessful in  accomplishing  its  design.  Koxinga  retired,  baffled 
in  his  plans,  and  contented  himself  with  driving  the  Dutch 
out  of  Formosa,  and  was  eventually  ennobled  under  the  title 
of  the  “ Sea-quelling  Duke,”  by  which  means  he  was  at  once 
pacified  and  extinguished.  Every  foreigner  reading  this 
singular  account  is  impelled  to  assent  to  the  comment  of  the 
author  of  the  “ Middle  Kingdom,”  that  a government  which 
was  strong  enough  to  compel  such  a number  of  maritime  sub- 
jects to  leave  their  towns  and  villages,  and  to  retire  at  such 
great  loss  into  the  interior,  ought  to  have  been  strong  enough 
to  equip  a fleet  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  attacks  upon  these 
desolated  homes. 

Another  example  of  the  persistence  of  the  Chinese  govern- 


I56 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ment  is  not  less  remarkable,  and  is  still  fresh  in  the  minds 
of  foreign  residents  in  China.  In  the  year  1873  the  Chinese 
General  Tso  Tsung-tang  established  himself  in  Barkoul  and 
Hami,  having  been  sent  by  the  government  to  endeavour 
to  put  a stop  to  the  great  Mohammedan  rebellion,  which,  be- 
ginning with  a mere  spark,  had  spread  like  wildfire  all  over 
western  China  and  through  Central  Asia.  The  difficulties  to 
be  overcome  were  so  great  as  to  appear  almost  insuperable. 
It  was  then  common  to  meet  with  articles  in  the  foreign  press 
in  China  ridiculing  both  the  undertaking  of  Tso  and  the  fatu- 
ity of  the  government  in  endeavouring  to  raise  money  by 
loans,  in  order  to  pay  the  heavy  war  expenses  thus  incurred. 
Within  a year  of  his  arrival  in  the  rebellious  districts,  Tso’s 
army  was  marching  on  either  side  of  the  lofty  T‘ien-shan  in 
parallel  columns,  driving  the  rebels  before  them.  When  they 
reached  a country  in  which  the  supplies  were  insufficient,  the 
army  was  turned  into  a farming  colony  and  set  to  cultivating 
the  soil  with  a view  to  raising  crops  for  their  future  support. 
Thus  alternately  planting  and  marching,  the  “agricultural 
army  ” of  Tso  thoroughly  accomplished  its  work,  an  achieve- 
ment which  has  been  thought  to  be  among  “ the  most  remark- 
able in  the  annals  of  any  modern  country.” 

That  quality  of  Chinese  patience  which  to  us  seems  the 
most  noteworthy  of  all,  is  its  capacity  to  wait  without  com- 
plaint and  to  bear  with  calm  endurance.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  true  way  to  test  the  real  disposition  of  a human  being 
is  to  study  his  behaviour  when  he  is  cold,  wet,  and  hungry. 
If  that  is  satisfactory,  take  the  individual  in  question,  “warm 
him,  dry  him,  and  fill  him  up,  and  you  have  an  angel.” 
There  is  a conviction  wdiich  often  finds  utterance  in  current 
literature,  that  it  is  as  dangerous  to  meet  an  Englishman  de- 
prived of  his  dinner  as  a she-bear  robbed  of  her  cubs,  and  it 
is  not  easy  to  perceive  why  the  truth  which  underlies  this 
statement  is  not  as  applicable  to  all  Anglo-Saxons  as  to  the 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE 


157 


inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles.  With  all  our  boasted  civilisa- 
tion we  are  under  bondage  to  our  stomachs. 

The  writer  once  saw  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Chinese, 
most  of  whom  had  come  several  miles  in  order  to  be  present 
at  a feast,  meet  a cruel  disappointment.  Instead  of  being 
able,  as  was  expected,  to  sit  down  at  about  ten  o’clock  to  the 
feast,  which  was  for  many  of  them  the  first  meal  of  the  day, 
owing  to  a combination  of  unforeseen  circumstances  they 
were  compelled  to  stand  aside  and  act  as  waiters  on  about  as 
many  more  individuals.  The  latter  ate  with  relish  and  that 
deliberation  which  is  a trait  of  Chinese  civilisation  in  which 
it  is  far  in  advance  of  our  own.  Before  the  meal  for  which 
they  had  so  long  and  so  patiently  waited  could  be  served,  an- 
other delay  became  necessary,  as  unforeseen  as  the  first,  and 
far  more  exasperating.  What  did  these  hundred  and  fifty 
outraged  persons  do?  If  they  had  been  inhabitants  of  the 
British  Isles,  or  even  of  some  other  portions  of  “nominally 
Christian  lands,”  we  know  very  well  what  they  would  have 
done.  They  would  have  worn  looks  of  sour  discontent,  and 
would  have  spent  the  entire  day  until  three  o’clock  in  the 
afternoon,  when  it  was  at  last  possible  to  sit  down,  in  growl- 
ing at  their  luck,  and  in  snarling  at  their  environment  generally. 
They  would  have  passed  fiery  resolutions,  and  have  “written 
a letter  with  five  ' Now,  Sirs,’  to  the  London  Times."  The 
hundred  and  fifty  Chinese  did  nothing  whatever  of  the  sort, 
and  were  not  only  good-tempered  all  day,  but  repeatedly 
observed  to  their  hosts  with  evident  sincerity  and  with  true 
politeness  that  it  was  of  no  consequence  whatever  that  they 
had  to  wait,  and  that  one  time  was  to  them  exactly  as  good 
as  another!  Does  the  reader  happen  to  know  of  any  form 
of  Occidental  civilisation  which  would  have  stood  such  a 
sudden  and  severe  strain  as  that? 

That  Chinese  nerves  are  totally  different  from  those  with 
which  we  are  endowed  has  been  already  shown,  but  that  does 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


x58 

not  prove  that  the  “ obtuse-nerved  Turanian”  is  a stoic  like 
the  North  American  Indian.  The  Chinese  bear  their  ills  not 
only  with  fortitude,  but,  what  is  often  far  more  difficult,  with 
patience.  A Chinese  who  had  lost  the  use  of  both  eyes  applied 
to  a foreign  physician  to  know  if  the  sight  could  be  restored, 
adding  simply  that  if  it  could  not  be  restored  he  should  stop 
being  anxious  about  it.  The  physician  told  him  that  nothing 
could  be  done,  upon  which  the  man  remarked,  “Then  my 
heart  is  at  ease.”  His  was  not  what  we  call  resignation, 
much  less  the  indifference  of  despair,  but  merely  the  quality 
which  enables  us  to  “ bear  the  ills  we  have.”  We  have  come 
to  recognise  worry  as  the  bane  in  our  modern  life,  the  rust 
which  corrodes  the  blade  far  more  than  the  hardest  use  can 
destroy  it.  It  is  well  for  the  Chinese  that  they  are  gifted  with 
the  capacity  not  to  worry,  for  taking  the  race  as  a whole,  there 
are  comparatively  few  who  do  not  have  some  very  practical 
reason  for  deep  anxiety.  Vast  districts  of  this  fertile  Empire 
are  periodically  subject  to  drought,  flood,  and,  in  consequence, 
to  famine.  Social  calamities,  such  as  lawsuits,  and  disasters 
even  more  dreaded  because  indefinite,  overhang  the  head  of 
thousands,  but  this  fact  would  never  be  discovered  by  the  ob- 
server. We  have  often  asked  a Chinese  whose  possession  of 
his  land,  his  house,  and  sometimes  of  his  wife,  was  disputed, 
what  the  outcome  would  be.  “There  will  never  be  any 
peace,”  is  a common  reply.  “And  when  will  the  matter 
come  to  a head  ? ” “ Who  knows  ? ” is  the  frequent  answer ; 

“it  may  be  early  or  it  may  be  late,  but  there  is  sure  to  be 
trouble  in  plenty.”  For  life  under  such  conditions  what  can 
be  a better  outfit  than  an  infinite  capacity  for  patience? 

The  exhibition  of  Chinese  patience  which  is  likely  to  make 
the  strongest  impression  upon  a foreigner,  is  that  which  is 
unfortunately  so  often  to  be  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire, 
when  the  calamities  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made 
have  been  realised  upon  an  enormous  scale.  The  provinces 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE 


*59 


of  China  with  which  foreigners  are  most  familiar  are  seldom 
altogether  free  from  disasters  due  to  flood,  drought,  and  re- 
sultant famine.  The  recollection  of  the  terrible  sufferings  in 
the  famine  of  1877-78,  which  involved  untold  millions  of 
people,  will  not  soon  fade  from  the  memories  of  those  who 
were  witnesses  of  that  distress.  Since  then  the  woes  inflicted 
upon  extensive  regions  by  the  overflows  of  the  Yellow  River, 
and  by  its  sudden  change  of  channel,  have  been  past  all  com- 
putation or  comprehension.  Some  of  the  finest  parts  of  sev- 
eral different  provinces  have  been  devastated,  and  fertile  soil 
has  been  buried  a fathom  deep  in  blighting  sands  of  desola- 
tion. Thousands  of  villages  have  been  annihilated,  and  the 
wretched  inhabitants  who  have  escaped  death  by  flood  have 
been  driven  forth  as  wanderers  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  with- 
out homes  and  without  hope.  Great  masses  of^human  beings, 
suddenly  ruined  and  reduced  to  desperation  by  no  fault  of 
their  own,  are  not  agreeable  objects  of  contemplation  to  any 
government.  Self-preservation  is  the  first  law  of  nature,  and 
what  is  more  natural  than  that  those  who,  through  no  pre- 
ventable causes,  have  been  suddenly  brought  to  starvation, 
should  combine  to  compel  those  who  have  food  to  share  with 
those  who  have  none? 

While  it  is  true  that  relief  is  extended  in  a certain  way  in 
some  large  cities,  and  where  the  poor  sufferers  are  most  con- 
gregated, it  is  also  true  that  this  relief  is  limited  in  quantity, 
brief  in  duration,  and  does  not  provide  the  smallest  remedy 
for  more  than  a minute  percentage  of  even  the  worst  distress. 
Towards  the  prolongation  of  the  lives  of  those  who  suffer  from 
great  calamities,  the  government  feels  itself  able  to  do  but  a 
trifle.  Towards  the  reclamation  of  their  land,  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  their  houses,  and  the  resumption  of  life  under  new 
conditions,  the  government  does  nothing  whatever.  It  does 
all  that  the  people  expect  if  it  remits  its  taxes,  and  it  frequently 
does  not  remit  them  until  it  has  been  again  and  again  demon- 


i6o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


strated  to  the  district  magistrate  that  out  of  nothing  nothing 
comes.  To  a foreigner  from  the  lands  of  the  West,  where  the 
revolutionary  cry  of  “Bread,  bread,  or  blood!”  has  become 
familiar,  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  the  hordes  of  homeless, 
famishing,  and  desperate  refugees,  who  roam  over  the  prov- 
inces blighted  by  flood  or  famine,  do  not  precipitate  them- 
selves in  a mass  upon  the  district  magistrate  of  the  region 
where  they  have  been  ruined,  and  demand  some  form  of 
succour.  It  is  true  that  the  magistrate  would  be  quite  power- 
less to  give  them  what  they  demand,  but  he  would  be  forced 
to  do  something,  and  this  would  be  a precedent  for  something 
more.  If  he  failed  to  “ tranquillise  ” the  people  he  would  be 
removed,  and  some  other  official  put  in  his  place.  To  repeated 
and  pressing  inquiries  put  to  the  Chinese  in  the  great  famine 
as  to  the  reasons  why  some  such  plan  was  not  taken,  the  in- 
variable answer  was  in  the  words,  “ Not  dare.”  It  is  vain  to 
argue,  in  reply  to  this  statement,  that  one  might  as  well  be 
killed  for  rebellion,  albeit  unjustly,  as  to  starve  to  death — nay, 
much  better.  The  answer  is  still  the  same,  “ Not  dare,  not 
dare.” 

There  seem  to  be  two  reasons  why  the  Chinese  do  not 
adopt  some  such  course.  They  are  a most  practical  people, 
and  by  a kind  of  instinct  the  futility  of  the  plan  is  recognised, 
and  hence  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  effect  the  needed 
combination.  But  we  must  believe  that  the  principal  reason 
is  the  unlimited  capacity  of  the  Chinese  for  patient  endurance. 
This  it  is  which  brings  about  one  of  the  most  melancholy 
spectacles  to  be  seen  in  China,  that  of  thousands  of  persons 
quietly  starving  to  death  within  easy  reach  of  overflowing 
abundance.  The  Chinese  are  so  accustomed  to  this  strange 
sight  that  they  are  hardened  to  it,  as  old  veterans  disregard 
the  horrors  of  battle.  Those  who  suffer  these  evils  have  been 
all  their  lives  confronted  by  them,  although  at  a little  distance. 
When  the  disaster  comes  it  is  therefore  accepted  as  alike  in- 


PATIENCE  AND  PERSEVERANCE 


161 


evitable  and  remediless.  If  those  who  are  overtaken  by  it 
can  trundle  their  families  on  wheelbarrows  off  to  some  region 
where  a bare  subsistence  can  be  begged,  they  will  do  that. 
If  the  family  cannot  be  kept  together,  they  will  disperse, 
picking  up  what  they  can,  and  reuniting  if  they  succeed  in 
pulling  through  the  distress.  If  no  relief  is  to  be  had  near  at 
hand,  whole  caravans  will  beg  their  way  a journey  of  a thou- 
sand miles  in  mid- winter  to  some  province  where  they  hope 
to  find  that  the  crops  have  been  better,  that  labour  is  more  in 
demand,  and  that  the  chances  of  survival  are  greater.  If  the 
floods  have  abated,  the  mendicant  farmer  returns  to  his  home 
long  enough  to  scratch  a crack  in  the  mud  while  it  is  still  too 
soft  to  bear  the  weight  of  an  animal  for  ploughing,  and  in  this 
tiny  rift  he  deftly  drops  a little  seed  wheat,  and  again  goes 
his  devious  way,  begging  a subsistence  until  his  small  harvest 
shall  be  ripe.  If  Providence  favours  him  he  becomes  once 
more  a farmer,  and  no  longer  a beggar,  but  with  the  distinctly 
recognised  possibility  of  ruin  and  starvation  never  far  away. 

It  has  always  been  thought  to  be  a powerful  argument  for 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  that  its  finest  powers  often  find  in 
this  life  no  fit  opportunity  for  expansion.  If  this  be  a valid 
argument,  is  there  not  reason  to  infer  that  the  unequalled 
patient  endurance  of  the  Chinese  race  must  have  been  de- 
signed for  some  nobler  purpose  than  merely  to  enable  them 
to  bear  with  fortitude  the  ordinary  ills  of  life  and  the  miseries 
of  gradual  starvation?  If  it  be  the  teaching  of  history  that 
the  fittest  survive,  then  surely  a race  with  such  a gift,  backed 
by  a splendid  vitality,  must  have  before  it  a great  future. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


CONTENT  AND  CHEERFULNESS. 

WE  have  already  seen  that  the  capacity  of  the  Chinese  to 
bear  the  ills  they  have,  is  a wonderful,  and  to  us  in  most 
cases  an  incomprehensible  talent,  which  has  well  been  called 
a psychological  paradox.  Notwithstanding  their  apparently 
hopeless  condition,  they  do  not  appear  to  lose  hope,  or  rather, 
they  seem  to  struggle  on  without  it  and  often  against  it.  We 
do  not  perceive  among  them  that  restlessness  which  charac- 
terises the  people  of  most  other  nations,  especially  towards  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  They  do  not  cherish  plans 
which  seem  to  them  to  lead  ultimately  to  “a  good  time  com- 
ing,” and  they  do  not  appear  to  suppose  that  there  is  any  such 
time  to  be  expected. 

But  the  terms  “patience”  and  “perseverance”  by  no  means 
cover  the  whole  field  of  the  Chinese  virtues  in  this  direction. 
We  must  also  take  account  of  their  quietness  of  mind  in  con- 
ditions often  very  unfavourable  to  it,  and  of  that  chronic  state 
of  good  spirits  which  we  designate  by  the  term  “cheerful- 
ness.” Our  main  object  is  to  call  attention  to  the  existence 
of  such  virtues ; yet  we  may  perhaps  be  able  incidentally  to 
suggest  certain  considerations  which  in  part  help  to  account 
for  them. 

By  the  term  “contentedness”  we  do  not  mean  to  imply  that 
any  individual  in  China  is  satisfied  with  what  he  possesses  in 
such  a way  and  to  such  a degree  that  he  does  not  wish  to  bet- 
ter his  condition.  The  contentedness  of  the  Chinese,  as  we 

162 


CONTENT  AND  CHEERFULNESS 


163 


have  seen  in  speaking  of  their  conservatism,  is  most  conspicu- 
ously seen  when  we  consider  the  system  under  which  they  live. 
That  system  they  do  not  wish  to  change.  That  this  is  the 
temper  of  the  great  mass  of  the  Chinese,  we  have  no  doubt 
whatever.  It  is  a mode  of  viewing  the  phenomena  of  life 
which  we  designate  by  the  general  name  “ conservative,”  and 
of  this  the  Chinese  are  as  conspicuous  examples  as  any  people 
of  whom  we  have  any  record.  It  must  be  evident  that  such 
conceptions  of  Chinese  society,  permeating  the  whole  mass  of 
.the  people  and  inherited  from  distant  ages,  powerfully  tend  to 
repress  any  practical  exhibitions  of  discontent  with  the  allot- 
ments of  fortune.  Evils  of  course  they  feel,  but  these  are 
considered  to  be  inevitable.  Persons  who  seriously  and  uni- 
formly take  this  view  are  not  the  ones  who  are  likely  to  en- 
deavour to  upset  the  established  order  of  things  simply  be- 
cause the  pressure  upon  themselves  is  severe.  In  no  country 
is  the  educated  class  more  really  a leader  of  thought  and  ac- 
tion than  in  China.  But  the  educated  class  is  firmly  persuaded 
that  for  China  and  the  Chinese  the  present  system  is  the  best 
obtainable.  Their  vast  and  varied  experience  in  the  long 
reach  of  Chinese  history  has  taught  the  Chinese  by  convinc- 
ing object-lessons  that  solid,  practical  improvements  in  their 
system  are  not  to  be  got  for  the  trying.  Their  adamantine 
conservatism  is  the  slow  outgrowth  of  this  experience. 

Without  being  fully  aware  of  the  fact,  the  Chinese  are  a 
nation  of  fatalists.  There  is  a great  deal  in  the  Classics  about 
the  " decrees  of  heaven.”  There  is  a great  deal  in  popular 
speech  about  “heaven’s  will.”  Expressions  of  this  sort  often 
bear  a close  analogy  to  the  manner  in  which  we  speak  of 
Providence.  But  there  is  this  radical  distinction  in  the  under- 
lying thought : to  us  “ Providence  ” signifies  the  care  and  fore- 
thought of  a Being  who  is  in  distinct  relations  to  all  creatures 
that  on  earth  do  dwell,  all  of  whom  are  included  in  His  thought 
and  forethought ; to  the  Chinese,  whose  practical  conception 


164 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  “heaven”  is  an  altogether  impersonal  one  and  utterly  vague, 
whatever  the  mode  of  expression,  the  practical  aspect  of  the 
matter  is  simply  that  of  fate.  “ Good  fate  ” and  “ bad  fate  ” 
are  phrases  which  have  to  the  Chinese  a meaning  similar  to 
that  conveyed  by  the  expressions  in  children’s  story-books, 
“ good  fairy  ” and  “ bad  fairy.”  By  means  of  these  mysterious 
agencies  anything  whatever  can  be  done,  anything  whatever 
can  be  undone. 

The  whole  complicated  theory  and  practice  of  Chinese  geo- 
mancy,  necromancy,  and  fortune-telling,  are  based  upon  the 
play  and  interplay  of  forces  which  are  visibly  expressed  by 
means  of  straight  lines.  The  number  of  Chinese  who  make  a 
living  out  of  these  theories  of  the  universe  practically  applied, 
is  past  all  estimation.  While  the  extent  to  which  such  super- 
stitions influence  the  daily  life  of  the  people  varies  greatly  in 
different  parts  of  the  Empire,  they  are  everywhere  real  and 
living  factors  in  the  minds  of  the  masses.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  hear  an  especially  unfortunate  Chinese  man 
or  woman  remark,  “ It  is  my  fate.”  The  natural  outcome  of 
such  a creed  would  be  to  cause  despair,  or  if  the  hopefulness 
with  which  mankind,  and  especially  the  Chinese,  are  merci- 
fully endowed  come  to  the  rescue,  to  urge  them  to  a patient 
biding  till  their  time  shall  come,  and  fate  shall  again  favour 
them.  Perhaps  the  Chinese  are  not  as  consistent  fatalists  as 
the  Turks,  and  perhaps  the  “fate  ” of  the  Chinese  is  not  iden- 
tical with  “ Kismet  ” ; but  it  is  evident  that  a people  so  per- 
suaded of  the  existence  of  fate  as  are  the  Chinese,  must  be  in- 
disposed for  violent  struggles  against  what  they  believe  to  be, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  unavoidable. 

It  is  a venerable  observation  of  the  Greeks  that  history  is 
philosophy  teaching  by  examples.  As  we  have  just  seen,  their 
own  history  has  been  the  teacher  of  the  Chinese,  and  the 
lessons  which  they  have  drawn  are  all  of  a conservative  char- 
acter. But  no  nation  is  educated  by  simply  knowing  its  own 


CONTENT  AND  CHEERFULNESS 


i65 

annals,  as  no  man  can  be  said  to  know  anything  who  knows 
only  what  has  happened  to  himself.  It  is  at  this  point  that 
Chinese  knowledge  is  fatally  defective.  Of  those  great  epi- 
sodes in  modern  history  which  we  denote  by  the  expressions 
the  Renaissance,  the  Reformation,  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  the  birth  of  modem  science,  the  Chinese  know  nothing. 
By  those  influences  which  brought  nations  into  a more  intimate 
contact  than  ever  before,  and  which  have  slowly  developed  a 
conception  of  the  rights  of  man,  the  Chinese  as  a people  have 
been  totally  unaffected. 

The  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  people  is  not  a 
living  issue  to  those  who  exist  and  have  all  their  being  in  the 
extinct  dynasties  of  the  past.  The  application  of  the  great 
laws  of  political  economy  to  the  advantage  of  all  departments 
of  the  state,  has  no  attractions  to  those  who  know  no  more 
of  political  economy  than  our  ancestors  at  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  and  who  would  not  care  for  it  if  they  did  know  of 
it.  The  first  impulse  to  improvement  comes  from  seeing  the 
superior  condition  of  others.  The  vast  mass  of  the  Chinese 
people  do  not  see  any  evidence  of  such  a better  condition 
elsewhere,  because  they  know  nothing  whatever  about  other 
countries.  Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  do  know  some- 
thing of  such  countries,  and  who  might  know  much  more,  are 
chained  by  fetters  of  conservatism.  Nothing  really  beneficial 
to  the  masses  can  be  done,  except  upon  a large  scale,  and  no 
body  of  persons  in  China  capable  of  working  upon  a large 
scale  wishes  anything  done  in  these  lines.  While  this  does 
not  of  itself  promote  content  among  the  masses,  it  strangles 
any  effective  manifestation  of  discontent  before  it  can  find 
expression.  Thus,  viewed  from  the  social  standpoint,  Chinese 
contentedness  is  the  antithesis  of  progress,  and  interdicts  it. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  fact  that  Chinese  experience 
is  against  the  practicability  of  any  amelioration  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  people  by  means  which  are  at  hand.  To  the 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


166 

foreigner,  acquainted  with  the  experience  of  other  lands  in 
modern  times,  the  simple,  obvious,  indispensable  recipe  for  the 
relief  of  many  of  the  ills  to  which  the  Chinese  are  subject,  is 
emigration.  This  we  know  from  induction  to  be  the  rem- 
edy which  the  Chinese  could  adopt  most  easily,  and  with  the 
greatest  assurance  of  success.  But  this  is  an  expedient  which 
the  Chinese  themselves  will  never  adopt,  for  the  reason  that 
it  will  take  them  away  from  the  home  of  their  fathers  and 
from  the  graves  of  their  ancestors,  to  which,  by  the  theory  of 
Confucianism,  they  are  inexorably  linked.  Generally  speak- 
ing, no  Chinese  will  leave  his  home  to  seek  his  fortune  at  a 
distance,  unless  he  is  in  some  way  driven  to  do  so.  His  ideal 
of  life  is  to  be 

“ Fixed  like  a plant  on  his  peculiar  spot, 

To  draw  nutrition,  propagate,  and  rot.” 

Generally  speaking,  no  Chinese  leaves  his  home  not  intending 
to  return.  His  hope  is  always  to  come  back  rich,  to  die  and 
be  buried  where  his  ancestors  are  buried.  As  long  as  this 
fatal  “ thirst  for  decomposing  under  the  immediate  feet  of 
their  posterity  ” continues  to  be  the  principal  passion  of  the 
Chinese,  so  long  will  they  be  debarred  from  the  one  obvious 
method  by  which  their  ills  might  be  effectually  lightened. 
Real  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  mass  of  the  Chinese 
people  where  they  are,  we  believe  to  be  well-nigh  impossible, 
and  transplantation  on  any  adequate  scale  they  would  not 
tolerate  except  as  a decree  of  “ fate.”  An  unconscious  con- 
sciousness of  this  state  of  things  checks  the  expression  of  a dis- 
content which  has  abundant  cause  to  make  itself  heard. 

But  what  we  have  thus  far  said  in  elucidation  of  the  peculiar 
Chinese  faculty  of  being  contented,  to  which  we  in  Western 
lands  have  nothing  corresponding,  fails  after  all  to  go  to  the 
root  of  the  matter.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  Chinese 
is  a being  formed  for  contentment,  as  the  fin  of  the  fish  is 


CONTENT  AND  CHEERFULNESS 


167 


formed  for  the  water,  or  the  wing  of  the  bird  for  the  air.  He 
is  what  he  calls  “ heaven-endowed  ” with  a talent  for  industry, 
for  peace,  and  for  social  order.  He  is  gifted  with  a matchless 
patience,  and  with  unparalleled  forbearance  under  ills  the 
causes  of  which  are  perceived  to  be  beyond  his  reach.  As  a 
rule,  he  has  a happy  temperament,  no  nervous  system  to  speak 
of,  and  a digestion  like  that  of  the  ostrich.  For  these  reasons, 
and  others  which  we  have  imperfectly  expressed,  instead  of 
spending  his  energies  in  butting  against  stone  walls,  which  he 
has  found  to  be  more  or  less  unyielding,  he  simply  submits  for 
the  most  part  without  serious  complaint  to  what  he  cannot 
help.  He  acts  in  the  spirit  of  the  old  adage,  “ What  can’t  be 
cured  must  be  endured.”  In  short,  a Chinese  knows  how  to 
abound,  and  he  knows  how  to  want,  and,  what  is  of  capital 
importance,  he  knows  how  to  be  contented  in  either  condition. 

The  cheerfulness  of  the  Chinese,  which  we  must  regard  as 
a national  characteristic,  is  intimately  connected  with  their 
contentedness  of  mind.  To  be  happy  is  more  than  they  ex- 
pect, but,  unlike  us,  they  are  generally  willing  to  be  as  happy 
as  they  can.  Inordinate  fastidiousness  is  not  a common  Chi- 
nese failing.  They  are  generally  model  guests.  Any  place 
will  do,  any  food  is  good  enough  for  them.  Even  the  mul- 
titudes who  are  insufficiently  clothed  and  inadequately  fed, 
preserve  their  serenity  of  spirit  in  a way  which  to  us  appears 
marvellous. 

An  almost  universal  illustration  of  Chinese  cheerfulness  is 
to  be  found  in  their  sociability,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  glum 
exclusiveness  so  often  characteristic  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  One 
of  the  main  enjoyments  of  the  Chinese  seems  to  be  chatting 
with  one  another,  and  whether  they  are  old  friends  or  perfect 
strangers  makes  very  little  difference.  That  this  appreciation 
of  human  society  is  a great  alleviation  of  many  of  the  mis- 
eries which  the  Chinese  suffer,  cannot  be  doubted. 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  many  Chinese  have  the  happy  art 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


168 

of  adorning  their  very  humble  surroundings  with  plants  and 
flowers,  of  which  they  are  extremely  fond.  This  is  but  an  in- 
articulate way  of  saying,  “We  have  not  much,  but  we  make 
the  most  of  what  we  have.” 

Many  as  are  the  criticisms  which  we  perhaps  justly  make 
upon  our  Chinese  servants,  it  is  only  fair  to  mention  that  they 
will  frequently  submit  to  serious  inconveniences,  and  will  do 
extra  work  for  many  persons  for  a great  length  of  time,  not 
only  without  complaint,  but  often  with  an  apparent  uncon- 
sciousness that  there  is  anything  to  complain  of. 

The  Chinese  who  is  in  the  service  of  others  and  is  in  the 
habit  of  bewailing  his  hard  fate,  is  often  laughed  at  by  his 
companions,  and  sometimes  he  becomes  a by-word  and  a 
proverb.  Of  the  tireless  industry  of  the  Chinese  we  have 
already  spoken,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  those  whose  spindle 
is  heard  till  after  midnight,  working  it  may  be  in  the  dark  in 
order  to  save  a farthing’s  worth  of  oil,  are  not  the  ones  whose 
mouths  are  filled  with  bitter  plaints.  They  rise  early  and  toil 
late,  and  they  do  so  as  a matter  of  course.  Some  of  those 
whose  labour  is  most  exhausting,  as  coolies,  boat-trackers, 
and  wheelbarrow  men,  not  only  are  not  heard  to  murmur  at 
the  unequal  distribution  of  this  world’s  goods,  but  when  they 
have  opportunities  of  resting  do  so  in  excellent  spirits,  and 
with  an  evident  enjoyment  of  their  humble  fare.  Discerning 
travellers  have  often  called  attention  to  this  very  significant 
trait  of  the  Chinese  workman.  In  Mr.  Hosie’s  “Three  Years 
in  Western  China,”  he  says,  speaking  of  the  upper  Yang-tze: 
“ The  trackers,  too,  deserve  a word  of  mention.  They  were, 
with  the  exception  of  the  musician  and  the  diver,  almost  all 
lithe  young  fellows,  always  willing  to  jump  on  shore,  never 
spending  more  than  a quarter  of  an  hour  over  their  rice  and 
vegetables,  and  never  out  of  temper.”  Mr.  Archibald  Little, 
in  his  “Through  the  Yang-tze  Gorges  ” bears  a similar  testi- 


CONTENT  AND  CHEERFULNESS  169 

mony : “ Our  five  trackers  clung  on  their  hands  and  feet  to 
the  jagged  rocks,  as  they  pulled  the  boat  up  inch  by  inch.  I 
cannot  sufficiently  admire  the  pluck  and  endurance  of  these 
poor  coolies,  earning  but  two  dollars  in  cash  for  the  two 
months’  voyage,  and  getting  three  meals  of  coarse  rice,  fla- 
voured with  a little  fried  cabbage,  for  their  sustenance,  upon 
which  they  are  called  to  put  forth  their  strength  from  dawn 
to  dark  daily.” 

The  writer  is  acquainted  with  a Chinese  who  was  employed 
by  a foreigner  in  pushing  a heavy  barrow,  on  journeys  often 
months  in  duration.  Upon  these  trips  it  was  necessary  to  start 
early,  to  travel  late,  to  transport  heavy  loads  over  steep  and 
rugged  mountains,  in  all  seasons  and  in  all  weathers,  fording 
chilling  rivers  with  bare  feet  and  legs,  and  at  the  end  of  every 
stage  to  prepare  his  master’s  food  and  lodging.  All  this  labo- 
rious work  was  done  for  a very  moderate  compensation,  and 
always  without  complaint,  and  at  the  end  of  several  years  of 
this  service  his  master  testified  that  he  had  never  once  seen 
this  servant  out  of  temper!  Is  there  any  reader  of  these  lines 
of  whom,  mutatis  mutandis,  the  same  statement  could  be  truth- 
fully made? 

Perhaps  it  is  in  time  of  sickness  that  the  innate  cheerful- 
ness of  the  Chinese  disposition  shows  to  most  advantage.  As 
a rule,  they  take  the  most  optimistic  view,  or,  at  all  events,  wish 
to  seem  to  do  so,  both  of  their  own  condition  and  of  that  of 
others.  Their  cheery  hopefulness  often  does  not  forsake  them 
even  in  physical  weakness  and  in  extreme  pain.  We  have 
known  multitudes  of  cases  where  Chinese  patients,  suffering 
from  every  variety  of  disease,  frequently  in  deep  poverty,  not 
always  adequately  nourished,  at  a distance  from  their  homes, 
sometimes  neglected  or  even  abandoned  by  their  relatives,  and 
with  no  ray  of  hope  for  the  future  visible,  yet  maintained  a 
cheerful  equanimity  of  temper,  which  was  a constant  albeit  an 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


170 

unintentional  rebuke  to  the  nervous  impatience  which,  under 
like  circumstances,  would  be  sure  to  characterise  the  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

Chinese  endued  with  this  happy  temperament  we  believe  to 
be  by  no  means  rare.  Every  one  of  much  experience  in  China 
has  met  them.  We  repeat  that  if  the  teaching  of  history  as 
to  what  happens  to  “ the  fittest  ” is  to  be  trusted,  there  is  a 
magnificent  future  for  the  Chinese  race. 


Interior  of  a Mohammedan  Mosque. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


FILIAL  PIETY. 

TO  discuss  the  characteristics  of  the  Chinese  without  men- 
tioning filial  piety,  is  out  of  the  question.  But  the  filial 
piety  of  the  Chinese  is  not  an  easy  subject  to  treat.  These 
words,  like  many  others  which  we  are  obliged  to  employ,  have 
among  the  Chinese  a sense  very  different  from  that  which  we 
are  accustomed  to  attach  to  them,  and  a sense  of  which  no 
English  expression  is  an  exact  translation.  This  is  also  true 
of  a great  variety  of  terms  used  in  Chinese,  and  of  no  one 
more  than  of  the  word  ordinarily  rendered  “ ceremony  ” (li), 
with  which  filial  piety  is  intimately  connected.  To  illustrate 
this,  and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish  a background  for  what 
we  have  to  say  of  the  characteristic  under  discussion,  we  can- 
not do  better  than  to  cite  a passage  from  M.  Callery  (quoted 
in  the  “Middle  Kingdom  ”) : “ Ceremony  epitomises  the  entire 
Chinese  mind ; and  in  my  opinion,  the  Book  of  Rites  is  per  se 
the  most  exact  and  complete  monograph  that  China  has  been 
able  to  give  of  herself  to  other  nations.  Its  affections,  if  it 
has  any,  are  satisfied  by  ceremony ; its  duties  are  fulfilled  by 
ceremony ; its  virtues  and  vices  are  referred  to  ceremony ; the 
natural  relations  of  created  beings  essentially  link  themselves 
in  ceremonial — in  a word,  to  that  people  ceremonial  is  man 
as  a moral,  political,  and  religious  being,  in  his  multiplied 
relations  with  family,  society,  and  religion.”  Every  one  must 
agree  in  Dr.  Williams’s  comment  upon  this  passage,  that  it 
shows  how  “ meagre  a rendering  is  ‘ ceremony  ’ for  the  Chi- 
nese idea  of  li,  for  it  includes  not  only  the  external  conduct, 

171 


172 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


but  involves  the  right  principles  from  which  all  true  etiquette 
and  politeness  spring.” 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  methods  to  ascertain  the 
Chinese  view  of  filial  piety  would  be  to  trace  the  instruction 
which  is  contained  on  this  subject  in  the  Four  Books,  and  in 
the  other  Classics,  especially  in  the  “ Filial  Piety  Classic.” 
Our  present  object  is  merely  to  direct  attention  to  the  doctrine 
as  put  into  practice  by  the  Chinese,  of  whom  filial  piety,  in 
the  sense  in  which  they  understand  it,  is  not  merely  a char- 
acteristic but  a peculiarity.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
Chinese  filial  piety  is  many-sided,  and  the  same  things  are 
not  to  be  seen  in  all  situations  or  by  all  observers. 

At  the  Missionary  Conference  held  in  Shanghai  in  the  year 
1877,  a paper  was  read  by  Dr.  Yates  on  “Ancestral  Worship,” 
in  which  he  embodied  the  results  of  his  thirty  years’  experience 
in  China.  In  one  of  the  opening  sentences  of  this  elaborate 
essay,  the  author,  after  speaking  of  ancestral  worship  con- 
sidered merely  as  a manifestation  of  filial  piety,  continues : 
“ The  term  ‘ filial  ’ is  misleading,  and  we  should  guard  against 
being  deceived  by  it.  Of  all  the  people  of  whom  we  have  any 
knowledge,  the  sons  of  the  Chinese  are  most  unfilial,  disobe- 
dient to  parents,  and  pertinacious  in  having  their  own  way 
from  the  time  they  are  able  to  make  known  their  wants.” 
Dr.  Legge,  the  distinguished  translator  of  the  Chinese  Clas- 
sics, who  retired  from  China  after  thirty-three  years’  experi- 
ence, has  quoted  this  passage  from  Dr.  Yates,  for  the  purpose 
of  most  emphatically  dissenting  from  it,  declaring  that  his 
experience  of  the  Chinese  has  been  totally  different.  This 
merely  illustrates  the  familiar  truth  that  there  is  room  for 
honest  difference  of  opinion  among  men,  as  among  ther- 
mometers, and  that  a correct  view  can  only  be  reached  by 
combining  results  that  appear  to  be  absolutely  inharmonious 
into  a whole  that  shall  be  even  more  comprehensive  than 
either  of  its  parts. 


FILIAL  PIETY 


1 73 


That  Chinese  children  have  no  proper  discipline,  that  they 
are  not  taught  to  obey  their  parents,  and  that  as  a rule  they 
have  no  idea  of  prompt  obedience  as  we  understand  it,  is  a 
most  indubitable  fact  attested  by  wide  experience.  But  that 
the  later  years  of  these  ungoverned  or  half-governed  children 
generally  do  not  exhibit  such  results  as  we  should  have  ex- 
pected, appears  to  be  not  less  a truth.  The  Chinese  think  and 
say  that  “ the  crooked  tree,  when  it  is  large,  will  straighten 
itself,”  by  which  metaphor  is  figured  the  belief  that  children 
when  grown  will  do  the  things  which  they  ought  to  do.  How- 
ever it  may  be  in  regard  to  other  duties,  there  really  appears 
to  be  some  foundation  for  this  theory  in  the  matter  of  filial 
behaviour.  The  occasion  of  this  phenomenon  seems  to  lie  in 
the  nature  of  the  Chinese  doctrine  of  filial  piety,  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  taught,  and  the  prominence  which  is  everywhere 
given  to  it.  It  is  said  in  the  “Filial  Piety  Classic”  that: 
“ There  are  three  thousand  crimes  to  which  one  or  the  other 
of  the  five  kinds  of  punishment  is  attached  as  a penalty,  and 
of  these  no  one  is  greater  than  disobedience  to  parents.” 
One  of  the  many  sayings  in  common  circulation  runs  as  fol- 
lows : “ Of  the  hundred  virtues  filial  conduct  is  the  chief,  but 
it  must  be  judged  by  the  intentions,  not  by  acts ; for,  judged 
by  acts,  there  would  not  be  a filial  son  in  the  world.”  The 
Chinese  are  expressly  taught  that  a defect  of  any  virtue,  when 
traced  to  its  root,  is  a lack  of  filial  piety.  He  who  violates 
propriety  is  deficient  in  filial  conduct.  He  who  serves  his 
prince  but  is  not  loyal  lacks  filial  piety.  He  who  is  a magis- 
trate without  due  respect  for  its  duties  is  lacking  in  filial  piety. 
He  who  does  not  show  proper  sincerity  towards  his  friends 
lacks  filial  piety.  He  who  fails  to  exhibit  courage  in  battle 
lacks  filial  piety.  Thus  the  doctrine  of  filial  conduct  is  seen 
to  embrace  much  more  than  mere  acts,  and  descends  into  the 
motives,  taking  cognisance  of  the  whole  moral  being. 

In  the  popular  apprehension,  the  real  basis  of  the  virtue  of 


174 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


filial  conduct  is  felt  to  be  gratitude.  This  is  emphasised  in 
the  " Filial  Piety  Classic,”  and  in  the  chapter  of  the  Sacred 
Edicts  on  the  subject.  The  justification  of  the  period  of 
three  years’  mourning  is  found,  according  to  Confucius,  in 
the  undoubted  social  fact  that  “ for  the  first  three  years  of  its 
existence  the  child  is  not  allowed  to  leave  the  arms  of  its 
parents,”  as  if  the  one  term  were  in  some  way  an  offset  for 
the  other.  The  young  lamb  is  proverbially  a type  of  filial 
behaviour,  for  it  has  the  grace  to  kneel  when  sucking  its  dam. 
Filial  piety  demands  that  we  should  preserve  the  bodies  which 
our  parents  gave  us,  otherwise  we  seem  to  slight  their  kind- 
ness. Filial  piety  requires  that  we  should  serve  our  parents 
while  they  live,  and  worship  them  when  dead.  Filial  piety 
requires  that  a son  should  follow  in  the  steps  of  his  father. 
“ If  for  the  three  years  he  does  not  alter  from  the  way  of  his 
father,”  says  Confucius,  "lie  may  be  called  filial.”  But  if 
the  parents  are  manifestly  in  the  wrong,  filial  piety  does  not 
forbid  an  attempt  at  their  reformation,  as  witness  the  fol- 
lowing, quoted  by  Dr.  Williams  from  the  Book  of  Rites : 
“ When  his  parents  are  in  error,  the  son,  with  a humble  spirit, 
pleasing  countenance,  and  gentle  tones,  must  point  it  out  to 
them.  If  they  do  not  receive  his  reproof,  he  must  strive 
more  and  more  to  be  dutiful  and  respectful  to  them  till  they 
are  pleased,  and  then  he  must  again  point  out  their  error. 
But  if  he  does  not  succeed  in  pleasing  them,  it  is  better  that 
he  should  continue  to  reiterate  reproof  than  permit  them  to 
do  injury  to  the  whole  department,  district,  village,  or  neigh- 
bourhood. And  if  the  parents,  irritated  and  displeased,  chas- 
tise their  son  till  the  blood  flows  from  him,  even  then  he  must 
not  dare  to  harbour  the  least  resentment ; but  on  the  contrary, 
should  treat  them  with  increased  respect  and  dutifulness.” 
It  is  to  be  feared  that  in  most  Western  lands  the  admonition 
of  parents  upon  these  terms  would  be  allowed  to  fall  into 


FILIAL  PIETY 


*75 


desuetude,  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  we  do  not  hear 
much  of  it  even  in  China! 

In  the  second  book  of  the  “ Confucian  Analects  ” we  find 
record  of  several  different  answers  which  Confucius  gave  as 
to  the  nature  of  filial  piety,  his  replies  being  varied  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  questioners.  The  first  answer 
which  is  mentioned  is  that  to  an  officer  of  the  State  of  Lu, 
and  is  comprised  in  the  compendious  expression  “ wu-wei,” 
which  he  apparently  left  in  the  mind  of  the  querist  as  a kind 
of  seed  to  be  developed  by  time  and  reflection.  The  words 
“ wu-wei  ” simply  mean  “ not  disobedient,”  and  it  is  natural 
that  Mang  I,  the  officer  who  had  inquired,  so  understood 
them.  But  Confucius,  like  the  rest  of  his  countrymen  since, 
had  a “ talent  for  indirection,”  and  instead  of  explaining  him- 
self to  Mang  I,  he  waited  until  some  time  later  when  one  of 
Confucius’  disciples  was  driving  him  out,  when  the  Master 
repeated  the  question  of  Mang  I to  this  disciple,  and  also  the 
reply.  The  disciple,  whose  name  was  Fan  Ch'ih,  on  hearing 
the  words  “wu-wei,”  very  naturally  asked,  “What  did  you 
mean  ? ” which  gave  the  Master  the  requisite  opportunity  to 
tell  what  he  really  meant,  in  the  following  words : “ That 
parents  when  alive  should  be  served  according  to  propriety, 
that  when  dead  they  should  be  buried  according  to  propriety, 
and  that  they  should  be  sacrificed  to  according  to  propriety.” 
The  conversation  between  Confucius  and  Fan  Ch'ih  was  in- 
tended by  the  former  to  lead  the  latter  to  report  it  to  Mang  I, 
who  would  thus  discover  what  was  meant  to  be  inferred  from 
the  words  “ wu-wei  ” ! In  other  answers  of  the  Master  to 
the  question,  What  is  denoted  by  filial  piety?  Confucius  laid 
stress  upon  the  requirement  that  parents  should  be  treated 
with  reverence,  adding  that  when  they  are  not  so  treated, 
mere  physical  care  for  them  is  on  a plane  with  the  care  be- 
stowed upon  dogs  and  horses. 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


176 

These  passages  have  been  quoted  in  this  connection,  to 
show  that  the  notion  that  filial  piety  consists  largely  in  com- 
pliance with  the  wishes  of  parents,  and  in  furnishing  them 
what  they  need  and  what  they  want,  is  a very  ancient  idea 
in  China.  Confucius  expressly  says : “ The  filial  piety  of  the 
present  time  means  (only)  the  support  of  one’s  parents,” 
implying  that  in  ancient  times,  of  which  he  was  so  fond,  and 
which  he  wished  to  revive,  it  was  otherwise.  Many  ages 
have  elapsed  since  these  conversations  of  the  Master  took 
place,  and  his  doctrine  has  had  time  to  penetrate  the  marrow 
of  the  Chinese  people,  as  indeed  it  has  done.  But  if  Confu- 
cius were  alive  to-day,  there  is  good  reason  to  think  that  he 
would  affirm  more  emphatically  than  ever,  “ The  filial  piety 
of  the  present  time  means  only  the  support  of  one’s  parents.” 
That  the  popular  conscience  responds  to  the  statement  of  the 
claims  of  filial  piety,  as  to  no  other  duty,  has  been  already 
observed,  but  in  the  same  connection  it  ought  to  be  clearly 
understood  what  this  filial  piety  is  supposed  to  connote.  If 
ten  uneducated  persons,  taken  at  random,  were  to  be  asked 
what  they  mean  by  being  “ filial,”  it  is  altogether  probable 
that  nine  of  them  would  reply,  “ Not  letting  one’s  parents  get 
angry,”  that  is,  because  they  are  not  properly  served.  Or,  in 
a more  condensed  form,  filial  piety  is  “ wu-wei,”  “ not  dis- 
obedient,” which  is  what  the  Master  said  it  is,  albeit  he  used 
the  words  in  “ a Pickwickian  sense.” 

If  any  of  our  readers  wish  to  see  this  theory  in  a practical 
form,  let  them  consider  the  four-and-twenty  ensamples  of 
filial  piety,  immortalised  in  the  familiar  little  book  called  by 
that  name.  In  one  of  these  cases,  a boy  who  lived  in  the 
“ After  Han  Dynasty,”  at  the  age  of  six  paid  a visit  to  a 
friend,  by  whom  he  was  entertained  with  oranges.  The  pre- 
cocious youth  on  this  occasion  executed  the  common  Chinese 
feat  of  stealing  two  oranges,  and  thrusting  them  up  his  sleeve. 
But  as  he  was  making  his  parting  bows  the  fruit  rolled  out, 


FILIAL  PI  ELY 


1 7 7 


and  left  the  lad  in  an  embarrassing  situation,  to  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  equal.  Kneeling  down  before  his  host,  he  made 
the  memorable  observation  which  has  rendered  his  name 
illustrious  for  nearly  two  millenniums:  “My  mother  loves 
oranges  very  much,  and  I wanted  them  for  her.”  As  this 
lad’s  father  was  an  officer  of  high  rank,  it  would  seem  to  an 
Occidental  critic  that  the  boy  might  have  enjoyed  other  op- 
portunities for  gratifying  her  desire  for  oranges,  but  to  the 
Chinese  the  lad  is  a classic  instance  of  filial  devotion,  because 
at  this  early  age  he  was  thoughtful  for  his  mother,  or  perhaps 
so  quick  at  inventing  an  excuse.  Another  lad,  of  the  Chin 
Dynasty,  whose  parents  had  no  mosquito  nets,  at  the  age  of 
eight  hit  upon  the  happy  expedient  of  going  to  bed  very  early, 
lying  perfectly  quiet  all  night,  not  even  brandishing  a fan, 
in  order  that  the  family  mosquitoes  might  gorge  themselves 
upon  him  alone,  and  allow  his  parents  to  sleep  in  peace! 
Another  lad  of  the  same  dynasty  lived  with  a stepmother  who 
disliked  him,  but  as  she  was  very  fond  of  carp,  which  were 
not  to  be  obtained  during  the  winter,  he  adopted  the  injudi- 
cious plan  of  taking  off  his  clothes  and  lying  on  the  ice,  which 
so  impressed  a brace  of  carp  who  had  observed  the  proceed- 
ing from  the  under  side  that  they  made  a hole  in  the  ice  and 
leaped  forth  in  order  to  be  cooked  for  the  benefit  of  the  iras- 
cible stepmother! 

According  to  the  Chinese  teaching,  one  of  the  instances  of 
unfilial  conduct  is  found  in  “ selfish  attachment  to  wife  and 
children.”  In  the  chapter  of  the  Sacred  Edict  already  quoted, 
this  behaviour  is  mentioned  in  the  same  connection  with 
gambling,  and  the  exhortations  against  each  are  of  the  same 
kind.  The  typical  instance  of  true  filial  devotion  among  the 
twenty-four  just  mentioned,  is  a man  who  lived  in  the  Han 
Dynasty,  and  who,  being  very  poor,  found  that  he  had  not 
sufficient  food  to  nourish  both  his  mother  and  his  child,  three 
years  of  age.  “We  are  so  poor,”  he  said  to  his  wife,  “that 


1 78 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


we  cannot  even  support  mother.  Moreover,  the  little  one 
shares  mother’s  food.  Why  not  bury  the  child  ? We  may 
have  another,  but  if  mother  should  die  we  cannot  obtain  her 
again.”  His  wife  dared  not  oppose  him,  and  accordingly  a 
hole  was  dug  more  than  two  feet  deep,  when  a vase  of  gold 
was  found  with  a suitable  inscription,  stating  that  Heaven 
bestowed  this  reward  on  a filial  son.  If  the  golden  vase  had 
not  emerged,  the  child  would  have  been  buried  alive,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  doctrine  of  filial  piety,  as  commonly  understood, 
rightly  so.  “ Selfish  attachment  to  wife  and  children  ” must 
not  hinder  the  murder  of  a child  to  prolong  the  life  of  its 
grandparent. 

The  Chinese  believe  that  there  are  cases  of  obstinate  illness 
of  parents,  which  can  only  be  cured  by  the  offering  of  a por- 
tion of  the  flesh  of  a son  or  a daughter,  which  must  be  cooked 
and  eaten  by  the  unconscious  parent.  While  the  favourable 
results  are  not  certain,  they  are  very  probable.  The  Peking 
Gazette  frequently  contains  references  to  cases  of  this  sort. 
The  writer  is  personally  acquainted  with  a young  man  who 
cut  off  a slice  of  his  leg  to'  cure  his  mother,  and  who  exhibited 
the  scar  with  the  pardonable  pride  of  an  old  soldier.  While 
such  cases  are  doubtless  not  very  common,  they  are  probably 
not  excessively  rare. 

The  most  important  aspect  of  Chinese  filial  piety  is  indicated 
in  a saying  of  Mencius,  that : “ There  are  three  things  which 
are  unfilial,  and  to  have  no  posterity  is  the  greatest  of  them.” 
The  necessity  for  posterity  arises  from  the  necessity  for  con- 
tinuing the  sacrifices  for  ancestors,  which  is  thus  made  the 
most  important  duty  in  life.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  every 
son  must  be  married  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  It  is  by 
no  means  uncommon  to  find  a Chinese  a grandfather  by  the 
time  he  is  thirty-six.  An  acquaintance  of  the  writer’s  accused 
himself  upon  his  death-bed  of  having  been  unfilial  in  two 
particulars : first,  that  he  had  not  survived  long  enough  to 


FILIAL  PIETY 


1 79 


bury  his  old  mother ; and  second,  that  he  had  neglected  to 
arrange  for  the  marriage  of  his  son,  a child  of  about  ten  years 
of  age.  This  view  of  filial  piety  would  doubtless  commend 
itself  to  the  average  Chinese. 

The  failure  to  have  male  children  is  mentioned  first  among 
the  seven  causes  for  the  divorce  of  a wife.  The  necessity  for 
male  children  has  led  to  the  system  of  concubinage,  with  all  its 
attendant  miseries.  It  furnishes  a ground,  eminently  rational 
to  the  Chinese  mind,  for  the  greatest  delight  at  the  birth  of 
sons,  and  a corresponding  depression  on  occasion  of  the  birth 
of  daughters.  It  is  this  aspect  of  the  Chinese  doctrine  which 
is  responsible  for  a large  proportion  of  the  enormous  infanti- 
cide which  is  known  to  exist  in  China.  This  crime  is  much 
more  common  in  the  south  of  China  than  in  the  north,  where 
it  often  seems  to  be  wholly  unknown.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  it  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  subjects  upon  which  to 
secure  exact  information,  just  in  proportion  to  the  public  senti- 
ment against  it.  The  number  of  illegitimate  children  can  never 
be  small,  and  there  is  everywhere  the  strongest  motive  to  de- 
stroy all  such,  whatever  the  sex.  Even  if  direct  testimony  to 
the  destruction  of  the  life  of  female  infants  in  any  region  were 
much  less  than  it  is,  it  would  be  a moral  certainty  that  a people 
among  whom  the  burial  alive  of  a child  of  three  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  support  of  its  grandmother  is  held  to  be  an  act 
of  filial  devotion,  could  not  possibly  be  free  from  the  guilt  of 
destroying  the  lives  of  unwelcome  female  infants. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  theory  of  Chinese 
mourning  for  parents,  which  is  supposed  to  consume  three 
full  years,  but  which  in  practice  is  mercifully  shortened  to 
twenty-seven  months.  In  the  seventeenth  book  of  the  “ Con- 
fucian  Analects  ” we  read  of  one  of  the  disciples  of  the  Mas- 
ter, who  argued  stoutly  against  three  years  as  a period  for 
mourning,  maintaining  that  one  year  was  enough.  To  this 
the  Master  conclusively  replied  that  the  superior  man  could 


i8o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


not  be  happy  during  the  whole  three  years  of  mourning,  but 
that  if  this  particular  disciple  thought  he  could  be  happy  by 
shortening  it  a year,  he  might  do  so,  but  the  Master  plainly 
regarded  him  as  “no  gentleman.” 

The  observance  of  this  mourning  takes  precedence  of  all 
other  duties  whatsoever,  and  amounts  to  an  excision  of  so 
much  of  the  lifetime  of  the  sons,  if  they  happen  to  be  in  gov- 
ernment employ.  There  are  instances  in  which  extreme  filial 
devotion  is  exhibited  by  the  son’s  building  a hut  near  the 
grave  of  the  mother  or  father,  and  going  there  to  live  during 
the  yyhole  time  of  the  mourning.  The  most  common  way  in 
which  this  is  done  is  to  spend  the  night  only  at  the  grave, 
while  during  the  day  the  ordinary  occupations  are  followed 
as  usual.  But  there  are  some  sons  who  will  be  content  with 
nothing  less  than  the  whole  ceremonial,  and  accordingly  exile 
themselves  for  the  full  period,  engaging  in  no  occupation 
whatever,  but  being  absorbed  by  grief.  The  writer  is  ac- 
quainted with  a man  of  this  class,  whose  extreme  devotion  to 
his  parents’  grave  for  so  long  a time  unsettled  his  mind  and 
made  him  a useless  burden  to  his  family.  To  the  Chinese 
such  an  act  is  highly  commendable,  irrespective  of  its  con- 
sequences, which  are  not  considered  at  all.  The  ceremonial 
duty  is  held  to  be  absolute  and  not  relative. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  cases  of  persons  who 
have  sold  their  land  to  the  last  fraction  of  an  acre,  and  even 
pulled  down  the  house  and  disposed  of  the  timbers,  in  order 
to  provide  money  for  a suitable  funeral  for  one  or  both  of  the 
parents.  That  such  conduct  is  a social  wrong,  few  Chinese 
can  be  brought  to  understand,  and  no  Chinese  can  be  brought 
to  realise.  It  is  accordant  with  Chinese  instinct.  It  is  ac- 
cordant with  li,  or  propriety,  and  therefore  it  was  unquestion- 
ably the  thing  to  be  done. 

The  Abbe  Hue  gives  from  his  own  experience  an  excellent 
example  of  that  ceremonial,  filial  conduct,  which  to  the  Chi- 


FILIAL  PIETY 


181 

nese  is  so  dear.  While  the  Abbe  was  living  in  the  south  of 
China,  during  the  first  year  of  his  residence  in  this  Empire, 
he  had  occasion  to  send  a messenger  to  Peking,  and  he  be- 
thought him  that  perhaps  a Chinese  schoolmaster  in  his  em- 
ploy, whose  home  was  in  Peking,  would  like  to  embrace  the 
rare  opportunity  to  send  a message  to  his  old  mother,  from 
whom  he  had  not  heard  for  four  years,  and  who  did  not  know 
of  her  son’s  whereabouts.  Hearing  that  the  courier  was  to 
leave  soon,  the  teacher  called  to  one  of  his  pupils,  who  was 
singing  off  his  lesson  in  the  next  room,  “ Here,  take  this  paper, 
and  write  me  a letter  to  my  mother.  Lose  no  time,  for  the 
courier  is  going  at  once.”  This  proceeding  struck  M.  Hue 
as  singular,  and  he  inquired  if  the  lad  was  acquainted  with 
the  teacher’s  mother,  and  was  informed  that  the  boy  did  not 
even  know  that  there  was  such  a person.  “ How  then  was  he 
to  know  what  to  say,  not  having  been  told?”  To  this  the 
schoolmaster  made  the  conclusive  reply : “ Don’t  he  know 
quite  well  what  to  say?  For  more  than  a year  he  has  been 
studying  literary  composition,  and  he  is  acquainted  with  a 
number  of  elegant  formulas.  Do  you  think  he  does  not  know 
perfectly  well  how  a son  ought  to  write  to  a mother?  ” The 
pupil  soon  returned  with  the  letter  not  only  all  written,  but 
sealed  up,  the  teacher  merely  adding  the  superscription  with 
his  own  hand.  The  letter  would  have  answered  equally  well 
for  any  other  mother  in  the  Empire,  and  any  other  would 
have  been  equally  pleased  to  receive  it. 

The  amount  of  filial  conduct  on  the  part  of  Chinese  children 
to  their  parents  will  vary  in  any  two  places.  Doubtless  both 
extremes  are  to  be  found  everywhere.  Parricides  are  not 
common,  and  such  persons  are  usually  insane,  though  that 
makes  no  difference  in  the  cruel  punishment  which  they  suffer. 
But  among  the  common  people,  groaning  in  deepest  poverty, 
some  harsh  treatment  of  parents  is  inevitable.  On  the  other 
hand,  voluntary  substitutions  of  a son  for  the  father,  in  cases 


102 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  capital  punishment,  are  known  to  occur,  and  such  instances 
speak  forcibly  for  the  sincerity  and  power  of  the  instinct  of 
filial  devotion  to  a parent,  though  this  parent  may  be  a deeply 
dyed  criminal. 

To  the  Occidental,  fresh  from  the  somewhat  too  loose  bonds 
of  family  life  which  not  infrequently  prevail  in  lands  nominally 
Christian,  the  theory  of  Chinese  filial  conduct  presents  some 
very  attractive  features.  The  respect  for  age  which  it  in- 
volves is  most  beneficial,  and  might  profitably  be  cultivated 
by  Anglo-Saxons  generally.  In  Western  countries,  when  a 
son  becomes  of  age  he  goes  where  he  likes,  and  does  what  he 
chooses.  He  has  no  necessary  connection  with  his  parents, 
nor  they  with  him.  To  the  Chinese  such  customs  must  ap- 
pear like  the  behaviour  of  a well-grown  calf  or  colt  to  the 
cow  and  the  mare,  suitable  enough  for  animals,  but  by  no 
means  conformable  to  li  as  applied  to  human  beings.  An  at- 
tentive consideration  of  the  matter  from  the  Chinese  stand- 
point will  show  that  there  is  abundant  room  in  our  own  social 
practice  for  improvement,  and  that  most  of  us  really  live  in 
glass  houses,  and  would  do  well  not  to  throw  stones  recklessly. 
Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  idle  to  discuss  the  filial  piety  of 
the  Chinese  without  making  most  emphatic  its  fatal  defects  in 
several  particulars. 

This  doctrine  seems  to  have  five  radical  faults,  two  of  them 
negative  and  three  of  them  positive.  It  has  volumes  on  the 
duty  of  children  towards  parents,  but  no  word  on  the  duty  of 
parents  to  children.  China  is  not  a country  in  which  advice 
of  this  kind  is  superfluous.  Such  advice  is  everywhere  most 
needed,  and  always  has  been  so.  It  was  an  inspired  wisdom 
which  led  the  Apostle  Paul  to  combine  in  a few  brief  sen- 
tences addressed  to  his  Colossian  church  the  four  pillars  of 
the  ideal  home : “ Husbands,  love  your  wives,  and  be  not 
bitter  against  them.”  “ Wives,  submit  yourselves  unto  your 
own  husbands,  as  it  is  fit  in  the  Lord.”  “ Children,  obey 


FILIAL  PIETY 


183 


your  parents  in  all  things,  for  this  is  well  pleasing  unto  the 
Lord.”  “ Fathers,  provoke  not  your  children  to  anger,  lest 
they  be  discouraged.”  What  is  there  in  all  Confucian  moral- 
ity which  for  practical  wisdom  can  for  a moment  be  put  into 
competition  with  these  far-reaching  principles?  The  Chinese 
doctrine  has  nothing  to  say  on  behalf  of  its  daughters,  but 
everything  on  behalf  of  its  sons.  If  the  Chinese  eye  had  not 
for  ages  been  colour-blind  on  this  subject,  this  gross  outrage 
on  human  nature  could  not  have  failed  of  detection.  By  the 
accident  of  sex  the  infant  is  a family  divinity.  By  the  acci- 
dent of  sex  she  is  a dreaded  burden,  liable  to  be  destroyed, 
and  certain  to  be  despised. 

The  Chinese  doctrine  of  filial  piety  puts  the  wife  on  an  in- 
ferior plane.  Confucius  has  nothing  to  say  of  the  duties  of 
wives  to  husbands  or  of  husbands  to  wives.  Christianity  re- 
quires a man  to  leave  his  father  and  mother,  and  cleave  to 
his  wife.  Confucianism  requires  a man  to  cleave  to  his  father 
and  mother,  and  to  compel  his  wife  to  do  the  same.  If  the 
relation  between  the  husband  and  his  parents  conflicts  with 
that  between  the  husband  and  his  wife,  the  latter,  as  the  lesser 
and  inferior,  is  the  relation  which  must  yield.  The  whole 
structure  of  Chinese  society,  which  is  modelled  upon  the  pa- 
triarchal plan,  has  grave  evils.  It  encourages  the  suppression 
of  some  of  the  natural  instincts  of  the  heart  that  other  in- 
stincts may  be  cultivated  to  an  extreme  degree.  It  results  in 
the  almost  entire  subordination  of  the  younger  during  the 
whole  life  of  those  who  are  older.  It  crarrtps  the  minds  of 
those  who  are  subjected  to  its  iron  pressure,  preventing  de- 
velopment and  healthful  change. 

That  tenet  of  the  Chinese  doctrine  which  makes  filial  con- 
duct consist  in  leaving  posterity  is  responsible  for  a long 
train  of  ills,  ft  compels  the  adoption  of  children,  whether 
there  is  or  is  not  any  adequate  provision  for  their  support. 
It  leads  to  early  marriages,  and  brings  into  existence  millions 


184 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  human  beings,  who,  by  reason  of  the  excessive  pinch  of 
poverty,  can  barely  keep  soul  and  body  together.  It  is  the 
efficient  cause  of  polygamy  and  concubinage,  always  and 
inevitably  a curse.  It  is  expressed  and  epitomised  in  the 
worship  of  ancestors,  which  is  the  real  religion  of  the  Chinese 
race.  This  system  of  ancestral  worship,  when  rightly  under- 
stood in  its  true  significance,  is  one  of  the  heaviest  yokes 
which  ever  a people  was  compelled  to  bear.  As  pointed  out 
by  Dr.  Yates  in  the  essay  to  which  reference  has  been  already 
made,  the  hundreds  of  millions  of  living  Chinese  are  under 
the  most  galling  subjection  to  the  countless  thousands  of  mil- 
lions of  the  dead.  “ The  generation  of  to-day  is  chained  to 
the  generations  of  the  past.”  Ancestral  worship  is  the  best 
type  and  guarantee  of  that  leaden  conservatism  to  which 
attention  has  already  been  directed.  Until  that  conservatism 
shall  have  received  some  mortal  wound,  how  is  it  possible  for 
China  to  adjust  herself  to  the  wholly  new  conditions  under 
which  she  finds  herself  in  this  last  quarter  of  the  century? 
And  while  the  generations  of  those  who  have  passed  from  the 
stage  continue  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  divinities  by  the 
Chinese  people,  how  is  it  possible  that  China  should  take  a 
single  real  step  forward  ? 

The  true  root  of  the  Chinese  practice  of  filial  piety  we 
believe  to  be  a mixture  of  fear  and  self-love,  two  of  the  most 
powerful  motives  which  can  act  on  the  human  soul.  The 
spirits  must  be  worshipped  on  account  of  the  power  which 
they  have  for  evil.  From  the  Confucian  point  of  view,  it  was 
a sagacious  maxim  of  the  Master,  that  “ to  respect  spiritual 
beings,  but  to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be  called  wisdom.” 
If  the  sacrifices  are  neglected  the  spirits  will  be  angry.  If 
the  spirits  are  angry  they  will  take  revenge.  It  is  better  to 
^worship  the  spirits  by  way  of  insurance.  This  appears  to  be 
a condensed  statement  of  the  Chinese  theory  of  all  forms  of 
worship  of  the  dead.  As  between  the  living,  the  process  of 


FILIAL  PIETY 


i85 

reasoning  is  equally  simple.  Every  son  has  performed  his 
filial  duties  to  his  father,  and  demands  the  same  from  his  own 
son.  That  is  what  children  are  for.  Upon  this  point  the 
popular  mind  is  explicit.  “ Trees  are  raised  for  shade,  chil- 
dren are  reared  for  old  age.”  Neither  parents  nor  children 
are  under  any  illusions  upon  this  subject.  “ If  you  have  no 
children  to  foul  the  bed,  you  will  have  no  one  to  bum  paper 
at  the  grave.”  Each  generation  pays  the  debt  which  is  ex- 
acted of  it  by  the  generation  which  preceded  it,  and  in  turn 
requires  from  the  generation  which  comes  after,  full  payment 
to  the  uttermost  farthing.  Thus  is  filial  piety  perpetuated  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  from  age  to  age. 

It  is  a melancholy  comment  upon  the  exaggerated  Chinese 
doctrine  of  piety  that  it  not  only  embodies  no  reference  to  a 
Supreme  Being,  but  that  it  does  not  in  any  way  lead  up  to  a 
recognition  of  His  existence.  Ancestral  worship,  which  is 
the  most  complete  and  the  ultimate  expression  of  this  filial 
piety,  is  perfectly  consistent  with  polytheism,  with  agnos- 
ticism, and  with  atheism.  It  makes  dead  men  into  gods,  and 
its  only  gods  are  dead  men.  Its  love,  its  gratitude,  and  its 
fears  are  for  earthly  parents  only.  It  has  no  conception  of  a 
Heavenly  Father,  and  feels  no  interest  in  such  a being  when 
He  is  made  known.  Either  Christianity  will  never  be  intro- 
duced into  China,  or  ancestral  worship  will  be  given  up,  for 
they  are  contradictories.  In  the  death  struggle  between  them 
the  fittest  only  will  survive. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


BENEVOLENCE. 

THE  Chinese  have  placed  the  term  “benevolence”  at  the 
head  of  their  list  of  the  Five  Constant  Virtues.  The  char- 
acter which  denotes  it,  is  composed  of  the  symbols  for  “ man  ” 
and  “ two,”  by  which  is  supposed  to  be  shadowed  forth  the 
view  that  benevolence  is  something  which  ought  to  be  devel- 
oped by  the  contact  of  any  two  human  beings  with  each  other. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  remark  that  the  theory  which  the  form  of 
the  character  seems  to  favour,  is  not  at  all  substantiated  by 
the  facts  of  life  among  the  Chinese,  as  those  facts  are  to  be 
read  by  the  intelligent  and  attentive  observer.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  far  from  being  true,  as  a superficial  examination  would 
seem  to  indicate,  that  there  is  among  the  Chinese  no  benevo- 
lence, though  this  has  been  often  predicated  by  those  who 
ought  to  have  known  the  truth.  “ The  feeling  of  pity,”  as 
Mencius  reminds  us,  “ is  common  to  all  men,”  widely  as  they 
differ  in  its  expression.  The  mild  and  in  some  respects  really 
benevolent  teachings  of  the  Buddhist  religion  have  not  been 
without  a visible  effect  upon  the  Chinese  people.  There  is, 
moreover,  among  the  Chinese  a strong  practical  instinct  in 
every  direction,  and  when  the  attention  has  once  been  directed 
towards  the  “ practice  of  virtue,”  there  is  a great  variety  of 
forms  in  which  there  is  certain  to  be  abundant  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  benevolence. 

Among  the  kinds  of  benevolence  which  have  commended 
themselves  to  the  Chinese  may  be  named  the  establishment  of 

1 86 


L 


BENEVOLENCE 


187 


foundling  hospitals,  refuges  for  lepers  and  for  the  aged,  and 
free  schools.  As  China  is  a land  which  for  most  practical  pur- 
poses is  quite  free  from  a census,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
to  what  extent  these  forms  of  benevolent  action  are  to  be 
found.  Rev.  David  Hill,  who  has  investigated  the  charities  of 
central  China,  reports  thirty  benevolent  institutions  in  the  city 
of  Hankow,  expending  annually  some  eight  thousand  pounds 
sterling.  But  it  is  hazarding  little  to  say  that  such  establish- 
ments must  be  relatively  rare ; that  is  to  say,  as  regards  the 
enormous  population,  and  the  enormous  aggregation  of  that 
population  in  huge  hives,  where  the  needs  are  greatest. 

The  vast  soup-kitchens  which  are  set  up  anywhere  and  every- 
where when  some  great  flood  or  famine  calls  for  them  are  fam- 
iliar phenomena,  as  well  as  the  donation  of  winter  clothing  to 
those  who  are  destitute.  It  is  not  the  government  only  which 
engages  in  these  enterprises,  but  the  people  also  co-operate  in 
a highly  creditable  manner,  and  instances  are  not  uncommon 
in  which  large  sums  have  been  thus  judiciously  expended. 
The  ordinary  streams  of  refugees  which  swarm  over  the  coun- 
try in  a bad  year  are  also  allowed  to  camp  down  in  cart-sheds, 
empty  rooms,  etc.,  but  this  is  to  a considerable  extent  a neces- 
sity. When  such  refugees  come  in  extensive  bands,  and  meet 
in  all  quarters  with  repulses,  they  are  certain  to  be  provoked 
into  some  form  of  reprisal.  Common  prudence  dictates  some 
concessions  to  those  in  such  circumstances. 

We  do  not  reckon  among  the  benevolences  of  the  Chinese 
such  associations  as  the  provincial  clubs  for  the  care  of  those 
who  may  be  destitute  at  a distance  from  home,  and  who  with- 
out this  help  could  not  return,  or  who,  having  died,  could  not 
otherwise  be  taken  home  and  buried.  This  is  an  ordinary 
business  transaction  of  the  nature  of  insurance,  and  is  probably 
so  regarded  by  the  Chinese  themselves. 

In  some  of  the  books  which  have  for  their  express  object 
exhortations  to  “ virtue,”  an  account  is  opened,  in  which  the 


i88 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


individual  charges  himself  with  every  bad  act  which  he  can 
remember,  and  credits  himself  with  every  good  act.  The 
balance  between  the  two  exhibits  his  standing  at  any  particu- 
lar time  in  the  account  books  of  the  Chinese  Rhadamanthus. 
This  system  of  retributive  bookkeeping  exhibits  clearly  the 
practical  character  of  the  Chinese,  already  remarked,  as  well 
as  their  constant  and  irrepressible  tendency  to  consider  the 
next  life,  if  there  be  one,  as  only  an  extension  and  an  amplifi- 
cation of  the  present  state  of  existence.  The  apparent  motive 
for  a large  percentage  of  Chinese  benevolence  is  therefore  the 
reflex  benefit  which  such  acts  are  expected  to  insure  to  the 
man  who  indulges  his  benevolent  impulses.  The  open  avowal 
of  a selfish  motive  in  all  acts  of  merit  sometimes  leads  to 
curious  results.  In  the  month  of  April,  1889,  the  prefect  of 
Hangchow  attempted  to  raise  funds  for  the  sufferers  from  the 
Yellow  River  floods,  by  levying  a tax  on  each  cup  of  tea  sold 
in  the  tea-houses  of  that  great  city.  To  the  people  of  that 
ancient  capital  this  assessment  presented  itself  in  a light  simi- 
lar to  that  in  which  the  Bostonians  of  1773  regarded  the  tea 
tax  of  their  day.  The  prefect  endeavoured  to  win  the  people 
over  by  a proclamation,  in  which  they  were  informed  that 
“ happiness  was  sure  to  be  their  reward,  if  they  cheerfully  con- 
tributed to  so  excellent  a cause.”  The  people,  however,  boy- 
cotted the  tea-shops,  and  were  in  the  end  entirely  victorious. 
It  is  not  every  day  that  we  are  treated  to  the  spectacle  of  a 
cityful  of  people  banded  together  to  resist  compulsory  “ hap- 
piness ”! 

Among  the  acts  by  which  merit  is  to  be  accumulated  may 
be  named  the  providing  of  coffins  for  those  too  poor  to  buy 
them ; the  gathering  of  human  bones  which  have  become  ex- 
posed, and  their  reburial  in  a suitable  manner ; the  collection 
of  written  or  printed  paper  that  it  may  be  burned  to  save  it 
from  desecration  ; and  the  purchase  of  live  birds  and  fish, 
that  they  may  be  restored  to  their  native  element.  In  some 


BENEVOLENCE 


189 

places  plasters  of  a mysterious  nature  are  also  given  to  all 
applicants,  free  vaccination  is  (theoretically)  furnished,  and 
“ virtue  books  ” are  provided  for  sale  at  a price  below  cost, 
or  are  even  given  away.  While  such  works  of  merit  occupy 
a very  prominent  place  in  Chinese  benevolence,  so  far  as  our 
observation  goes,  acts  of  kindly  good-will  to  men  and  women 
occupy  a very  subordinate  place.  When  such  acts  occur  they 
are  almost  sure  to  be  on  some  stereotyped  pattern,  involving 
a minimum  of  trouble  and  thought  on  the  part  of  the  doer. 
It  is  much  easier  to  stand  on  the  brink  of  a river,  watch  a 
fisherman  lower  his  net,  pay  for  his  entire  catch,  and  throw  it 
back  again  into  the  water,  than  to  look  into  the  cases  of  the 
needy  at  one’s  doors,  and  give  help  in  a judicious  manner. 

Moreover,  to  the  mind  of  the  practical  Chinese  there  is  a 
very  important  difference.  As  soon  as  the  fish  touches  the 
water  or  the  bird  skims  the  air  they  are  on  a wholly  self-sup- 
porting basis,  and  that  is  the  end  of  the  work.  They  will  not 
expect  the  man  who  has  released  them  to  provide  them  and 
their  numerous  families  with  means  of  subsistence.  For  the 
man  it  only  remains  to  register  his  virtuous  act  and  go  about 
his  business,  sure  of  no  disagreeable  consequences.  But  in 
China  " virtue’s  door  is  hard  to  open,”  and  it  is  still  harder  to 
shut.  No  one  can  possibly  foresee  all  the  remote  conse- 
quences of  some  well-meant  act  of  kindness,  and  knowing  the 
danger  of  incurring  responsibility,  the  prudent  will  be  wary 
what  they  undertake.  A missionary  living  in  an  interior 
province  was  asked  by  some  native  gentlemen  to  do  a kind 
act  for  a poor  beggar  who  was  totally  blind,  and  restore  to 
him  his  sight.  It  proved  to  be  a case  of  cataract,  and  excel- 
lent vision  was  secured.  When  the  result  became  certain,  the 
missionary  was  waited  upon  by  the  same  gentlemen,  and  told 
that  as  he  had  destroyed  the  only  means  by  which  the  blind 
man  could  get  a living,  that  is,  by  begging,  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  missionary  to  make  it  up  to  him  by  taking  him  into  em- 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


190 

ploy  as  a gatekeeper!  Sometimes  a benevolent  old  lady  who 
is  limited  in  the  sphere  of  her  activity  makes  a practice  of 
entertaining  other  old  ladies  who  seem  to  be  deserving,  but 
who  are  victims  of  cruel  fate.  We  have  heard  of  one  case  of 
this  sort — and  of  one  only — and  they  may  not  be  so  rare  as 
is  supposed.  But  after  all  abatements,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  “real  kindness  kindly  expressed”  is  not  often  to  be  met 
in  Chinese  life. 

When  a vast  calamity  occurs,  like  the  great  famine,  or  the 
outburst  of  the  Yellow  River,  the  government,  local  or  gen- 
eral, often  comes  to  the  front  with  a greater  or  less  degree  of 
promptness,  and  attempts  to  help  the  victims.  But  instead 
of  doing  this  on  any  uniform  and  extensive  scale,  such  as  the 
perpetual  recurrence  of  the  necessity  might  seem  to  suggest, 
it  is  done  in  a makeshift  way,  as  if  the  occasion  had  never 
before  arisen  and  might  never  arise  again.  The  care  of  the 
refugees  is  moreover  usually  abandoned  at  the  very  time  when 
they  most  need  help,  namely,  in  the  early  spring,  when,  having 
been  weakened  by  their  long  suffering  and  by  atrocious  over- 
crowding, they  are  most  liable  to  disease.  It  is  then  that  they 
are  sent  away  with  a little  ready  money,  to  make  the  best  of 
their  way  home,  and  to  get  back  into  their  normal  state  of 
life  as  best  they  can.  The  excuses  for  this  are  apparent : the 
funds  are  usually  exhausted;  there  is  work  to  be  done  on 
the  farms,  if  the  workers  can  but  get  food  till  wheat  harvest. 
The  government  knows  that  they  will  die  of  pestilence  if  they 
remain  till  warm  weather  where  they  are,  and  destruction  in 
detail  seems  to  the  officials  to  be  a less,  because  a less  con- 
spicuous, evil  than  death  in  masses. 

The  same  spirit  is  evinced  in  the  curious  ebullition  of  chari- 
tableness, which  is  known  as  the  “ twelve  eight  gruel.”  This 
performance  may  be  regarded  as  a typical  case  of  the  most 
superficial  form  of  Chinese  benevolence.  On  the  eighth  day 
of  the  twelfth  moon  it  is  the  custom  for  every  one  who 


BENEVOLENCE 


191 

has  accumulated  a quantity  of  benevolent  impulses,  which 
have  had  no  opportunity  for  their  gratification,  to  make  the 
most  liberal  donations  to  all  comers,  of  the  very  cheapest  and 
poorest  quality  of  soup,  during  about  twelve  hours  of  solar 
time.  This  is  called  “ practising  virtue,”  and  is  considered  to 
be  a means  of  laying  up  merit.  If  the  year  happens  to  be 
one  in  which  the  harvest  is  bountiful,  those  who  live  in  the 
country  have  perhaps  no  applicants  for  their  coarse  provender, 
as  even  the  poorest  people  have  as  good  or  better  at  home. 
This  circumstance  does  not,  however,  lead  to  the  pretermis- 
sion of  the  offer,  much  less  to  the  substitution  of  anything  of 
a better  quality.  On  the  contrary,  the  donors  advertise  their 
intentions  with  the  same  alacrity  as  in  other  years,  not  to  say 
with  greater,  and  when  the  day  passes,  and  no  one  has  asked 
for  a single  bowl  of  the  rich  gruel  designed  for  them,  it  is 
merely  put  into  the  broken  jars  out  of  which  the  pigs  are  fed, 
and  the  wealthy  man  of  practical  benevolence  retires  to  rest 
with  the  proud  satisfaction  that  however  it  may  be  with  the 
poor  wretches  who  would  not  come  to  his  feast,  he  at  least 
has  done  his  duty  for  another  year,  and  can  in  good  conscience 
pose  as  a man  of  benevolence  and  virtue.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  year  should  be  a bad  one,  and  grain  rises  to 
a fabulous  price,  then  this  same  man  of  means  and  of  virtue 
fails  to  send  out  any  notices  of  the  “practice  of  virtue”  for 
this  particular  year,  for  the  reason  that  he  “ cannot  afford  it  ” ! 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  gifts  to  beggars,  of  whom 
one  almost  everywhere  sees  a swarm.  This  donation  also  is 
of  the  nature  of  an  insurance.  In  the  cities  the  beggars  are, 
as  is  well  known,  organised  into  guilds  of  a very  powerful 
sort,  more  powerful  by  far  than  any  with  which  they  can  have 
to  contend,  for  the  reason  that  the  beggars  have  nothing  to 
lose  and  nothing  to  fear,  in  which  respects  they  stand  alone. 
The  shopkeeper  who  should  refuse  a donation  to  a stalwart 
beggar,  after  the  latter  has  waited  for  a reasonable  length 


192 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  time,  and  has  besought  with  what  the  Geneva  arbitrators 
styled  “due  diligence,”  would  be  liable  to  an  invasion  of  a 
horde  of  famished  wretches,  who  would  render  the  existence 
even  of  a stolid  Chinese  a burden,  and  who  would  utterly  pre- 
vent the  transaction  of  any  business  until  their  continually 
rising  demands  should  be  met.  Both  the  shopkeepers  and 
the  beggars  understand  this  perfectly  well,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  benevolences  of  this  nature  flow  in  a steady,  be  it 
a tiny  rill. 

The  same  principle,  with  obvious  modifications,  applies  to 
the  small  donations  to  the  incessant  stream  of  refugees  to  be 
seen  so  often  in  so  many  places.  In  all  these  cases  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  object  in  view  is  by  no  means  the  benefit  of 
the  person  upon  whom  the  “benevolence  ” terminates,  but  the 
extraction  from  the  benefit  conferred  of  a return  benefit  for  the 
giver.  Every  such  object  of  Chinese  charity  is  regarded  as  a 
“little  Jo,”  and  the  main  aim  of  those  who  have  anything  to 
do  with  him  is  to  make  it  reasonably  certain  that  he  will 
“ move  on.” 

To  the  other  disabilities  of  Chinese  benevolence  must  be 
added  this  capital  one,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  any  ent 
terprise,  however  good  or  however  urgent,  to  escape  the  with- 
ering effects  of  the  Chinese  system  of  squeezes,  which  is  as 
well  organised  as  any  other  part  of  the  scheme  of  Chinese 
government.  It  is  not  easy  to  possess  one’s  self  of  full  details 
of  the  working  of  any  regular  Chinese  charity,  but  enough  has 
been  observed  during  such  a special  crisis  as  the  great  famine, 
to  make  it  certain  that  the  deepest  distress  of  the  people  is  no 
barrier  whatever  to  the  most  shameful  peculation  on  the  part 
of  officials  entrusted  with  the  disbursement  of  funds  for  relief. 
And  if  such  scandals  take  place  under  these  circumstances, 
when  public  attention  is  most  fixed  on  the  distress  and  its  re- 
lief, it  is  not  difficult  to  conjecture  what  happens  when  there 
is  no  outside  knowledge  either  of  the  funds  contributed  or  of 
their  use. 


BENEVOLENCE 


r93 


When  the  Chinese  come  to  know  more  of  that  Occidental 
civilisation  of  which  too  often  only  the  worst  side  obtrudes 
itself  upon  them,  it  will  certainly  seem  to  them  not  a little  re- 
markable that  all  Christendom  is  dotted  with  institutions  such 
as  have  no  parallel  out  of  Christendom,  and  then  it  will  per- 
haps occur  to  them  to  inquire  into  the  rationale  of  so  significant 
a fact.  They  may  be  led  to  notice  the  suggestive  circumstance 
that  the  Chinese  character  for  benevolence,  unlike  most  of 
those  which  relate  to  the  emotions,  which  generally  have  the 
heart  radical,  is  written  without  the  heart.  The  virtue  for 
which  it  stands  is  also  too  often  practised  without  heart,  with 
the  general  results  which  we  have  noticed.  That  state  of 
mind  in  which  practical  philanthropy  becomes  an  instinct,  de- 
manding opportunity  to  exhibit  its  workings  whenever  the  need 
of  it  is  clearly  perceived,  may  be  said  to  be  almost  wholly 
wanting  among  the  Chinese.  It  is  not,  indeed,  a human  de- 
velopment. If  it  is  to  be  created  among  the  Chinese,  it  must 
be  by  the  same  process  which  has  made  it  an  integral  con- 
stituent of  life  in  the  lands  of  the  West. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY. 


“'TENTION  has  been  directed  to  that  aspect  of  Chinese 


life  which  is  represented  by  the  term  “ benevolence,”  the 
very  first  of  the  so-called  Constant  Virtues.  Benevolence  is 
well-wishing.  Sympathy  is  fellow-feeling.  Our  present  object, 
having  premised  that  the  Chinese  do  practise  a certain  amount 
of  benevolence,  is  to  illustrate  the  proposition  that  they  are 
conspicuous  for  a deficiency  of  sympathy. 

It  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  population  of  China 
is  dense.  The  disasters  of  flood  and  famine  are  of  periodical 
occurrence  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  The  Chinese 
desire  for  posterity  is  so  overmastering  a passion  that  circum- 
stances which  ought  to  operate  as  an  effectual  check  upon 
population,  and  which  in  many  other  countries  would  do  so, 
appear  to  be  in  China  relatively  inefficient  for  that  purpose. 
The  very  poorest  people  continue  to  marry  their  children  at 
an  early  age,  and  these  children  bring  up  large  families,  just 
as  if  there  were  any  provision  for  their  maintenance.  The 
result  of  these  and  other  causes  is  that  a large  proportion  of 
the  population  lives,  in  the  most  literal  sense,  from  hand  to 
mouth.  This  may  be  said  to  be  the  universal  condition  of 
day-labourers,  and  it  is  a condition  from  which  there  appears 
to  be  no  possibility  of  escape.  No  foreigner  can  long  deal 
with  the  ordinary  Chinese  whom  he  everywhere  meets,  without 
at  once  becoming  aware  of  the  fact  that  hardly  any  one  has 
any  ready  money.  The  moment  that  anything  whatever  is 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


l9S 


to  be  done,  the  first  demand  is  for  cash,  that  those  who  are  to 
do  it  may  get  something  to  eat,  the  presumption  being  that  as 
yet  they  have  had  nothing.  It  is  often  very  hard  even  for 
well-to-do  people  to  raise  the  most  moderate  sums  of  money 
when  it  suddenly  becomes  necessary  to  do  so.  There  is  a 
most  significant  expression  commonly  employed  on  such  oc- 
casions, which  speaks  of  a man  who  is  obliged  to  collect  a sum 
with  which  to  prosecute  a lawsuit,  to  arrange  for  a funeral,  and 
the  like,  as  “putting  through  a famine,”  that  is,  acting  like  a 
starving  person,  in  the  urgency  and  persistency  of  his  demands 
for  help.  None  but  those  who  are  well  off  ever  expect  to  be 
able  to  manage  affairs  of  this  sort  without  assistance.  Hope- 
less poverty  is  the  most  prominent  fact  in  the  Chinese  Empire, 
and  the  bearing  of  this  fact  upon  the  relations  of  the  people  to 
one  another  must  be  evident  to  the  most  careless  observer. 
The  result  of  the  pressure  for  the  means  of  subsistence,  and 
of  the  habits  which  this  pressure  cultivates  and  fixes,  even  after 
the  immediate  demand  is  no  longer  urgent,  is  to  bring  life 
down  to  a hard  materialistic  basis,  in  which  there  are  but  two 
prominent  facts.  Money  and  food  are  twin  fqci  of  the  Chinese 
ellipse,  and  it  is  about  them  as  centres  that  the  whole  social  life 
of  the  people  revolves. 

The  deep  poverty  of  the  masses  of  the  people  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  and  the  terrible  struggle  constantly  going  on  to  secure 
even  the  barest  subsistence,  have  familiarised  them  with  the 
most  pitiable  exhibitions  of  suffering  of  every  conceivable 
variety.  Whatever  might  be  the  benevolent  impulses  of  any 
Chinese,  he  is  from  the  nature  of  the  case  wholly  helpless  to 
relieve  even  a thousandth  part  of  the  misery  which  he  sees 
about  him  all  the  time — misery  multiplied  many  times  in  any 
year  of  special  distress.  A thoughtful  Chinese  must  recognise 
the  utter  futility  of  the  means  which  are  employed  to  alleviate 
distress,  whether  by  individual  kindness  or  by  government  in- 
terference. All  these  methods,  even  when  taken  at  their  best, 


196 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


amount  simply  to  a treatment  of  the  symptoms,  and  do  abso- 
lutely nothing  towards  removing  disease.  Their  operation  is 
akin  to  that  of  societies  which  should  distribute  small  pieces  of 
ice  among  the  victims  of  typhoid  fever — so  many  ounces  to 
each  patient,  with  no  hospitals,  no  dieting,  no  medicine,  and 
no  nursing.  It  is  not,  therefore,  strange  that  the  Chinese  are 
not  in  practical  ways  more  benevolent,  but  rather  that,  with 
the  total  lack  of  system,  of  prevision,  and  of  supervision,  be- 
nevolence continues  at  all.  We  are  familiar  with  the  phenom- 
enon of  the  effect,  upon  the  most  cultivated  persons,  of  con- 
stant contact  with  misery  which  they  have  no  power  either  to 
hinder  or  to  help,  for  this  is  illustrated  in  every  modern  war. 
The  first  sight  of  blood  causes  a sinking  of  the  epigastric  nerves, 
and  makes  an  indelible  impression ; but  this  soon  wears  away, 
and  is  succeeded  by  a comparative  callousness,  which,  even 
to  him  who  experiences  it,  is  a perpetual  surprise.  In  China 
there  is  always  a social  war,  and  every  one  is  too  accustomed 
to  its  sickening  effects  to  give  them  more  than  a momentary 
attention. 

One  of  the  manifestations  of  Chinese  lack  of  sympathy  is 
their  attitude  towards  those  who  are  in  any  way  physically  de- 
formed. According  to  the  popular  belief,  the  lame,  the  blind, 
especially  those  who  are  blind  of  but  one  eye,  the  deaf,  the 
bald,  the  cross-eyed,  are  all  persons  to  be  avoided.  It  appears 
to  be  the  assumption  that  since  the  physical  nature  is  defective, 
the  moral  nature  must  be  so  likewise.  So  far  as  our  obser- 
vation extends,  such  persons  are  not  treated  with  cruelty,  but 
they  excite  very  little  of  that  sympathy  which  in  Western  lands 
is  so  freely  and  so  spontaneously  extended.  They  are  looked 
upon  as  having  been  overtaken  by  a punishment  for  some 
secret  sin,  a theory  exactly  accordant  with  that  of  the  ancient 
J ews. 

The  person  who  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  branded  with 
some  natural  defect  or  some  acquired  blemish  will  not  go  long 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


l97 


without  being  reminded  of  the  fact.  One  of  the  mildest  forms 
of  this  practice  is  that  in  which  the  peculiarity  is  employed  as 
a description  in  such  a way  as  to  attract  to  it  public  attention. 
“ Great  elder  brother  with  the  pockmarks,”  says  an  attendant 
in  a dispensaiy  to  a patient,  “ from  what  village  do  you  come?  ” 
It  will  not  be  singular  if  the  man  whose  eyes  are  afflicted  with 
strabismus  hears  an  observation  to  the  effect  that  “when  the 
eyes  look  asquint,  the  heart  is  askew  ” ; or  if  the  man  who  has 
no  hair  is  reminded  that  “ out  of  ten  bald  men,  nine  are  de- 
ceitful, and  the  other  would  be  so  also,  were  he  not  dumb.” 
Such  freaks  of  nature  as  albinos  form  an  unceasing  butt  for  a 
species  of  cheap  wit,  which  appears  never  for  an  instant  to  be 
intermitted.  The  unfortunate  possessor  of  peculiarities  like 
this  must  resign  himself  (or  herself)  to  a lifetime  of  this  treat- 
ment, and  happy  will  he  be  if  his  temperament  admits  of  his 
listening  to  such  talk  in  perpetual  reiteration  without  becoming 
by  turns  furious  and  sullen. 

The  same  excess  of  frankness  is  displayed  towards  those  who 
exhibit  any  mental  defects.  “ This  boy,”  remarks  a bystander, 
“ is  idiotic.”  The  lad  is  probably  not  at  all  “ idiotic,”  but  his 
undeveloped  mind  may  easily  become  blighted  by  the  con- 
stant repetition  in  his  presence  of  the  proposition  that  he  has 
no  mind  at  all.  This  is  the  universal  method  of  treating  all 
patients  afflicted  with  nervous  diseases,  or  indeed  with  any 
other.  All  their  peculiarities,  the  details  of  their  behaviour, 
the  method  in  which  the  disease  is  supposed  to  have  originated, 
the  symptoms  which  attend  its  exacerbations,  are  all  public 
property,  and  are  all  detailed  in  the  presence  of  the  patient, 
who  must  be  thoroughly  accustomed  to  hearing  himself  de- 
scribed as  “ crazy,”  “ half-witted,”  “ besotted  in  his  intellect,” 
etc.,  etc. 

Among  a people  to  whom  the  birth  of  male  children  is  so 
vital  a matter,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  fact  of  childlessness 
is  a constant  occasion  of  reproach  and  taunts,  just  as  in  the 


198 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ancient  days,  when  it  was  said  of  the  mother  of  the  prophet 
Samuel  that  “ her  adversary  also  provoked  her  sore,  for  to 
make  her  fret.”  If  it  is  supposed  for  any  reason,  or  without 
reason,  that  a mother  has  quietly  smothered  one  of  her  children, 
it  will  not  be  strange  if  the  announcement  of  the  same  is  pub- 
licly made  to  a stranger. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  methods  in  which  the  Chinese 
lack  of  sympathy  is  manifested  is  in  the  treatment  which  brides 
receive  on  their  wedding-day.  They  are  often  very  young,  are 
always  timid,  and  are  naturally  terror-stricken  at  being  sud- 
denly thrust  among  strangers.  Customs  vary  widely,  but  there 
seems  to  be  a general  indifference  to  the  feelings  of  the  poor 
child  thus  exposed  to  the  public  gaze.  In  some  places  it  is 
allowable  for  any  one  who  chooses  to  turn  back  the  curtains 
of  the  chair  and  stare  at  her.  In  other  regions,  the  unmarried 
girls  find  it  a source  of  keen  enjoyment  to  post  themselves  at 
a convenient  position  as  the  bride  passes,  to  throw  upon  her 
handfuls  of  hay-seed  or  chaff,  which  will  obstinately  adhere 
to  her  carefully  oiled  hair  for  a long  time.  Upon  her  emerg- 
ence from  the  chair  at  the  house  of  her  new  parents,  she  is 
subjected  to  the  same  kind  of  criticism  as  a newly  bought 
horse,  with  what  feelings  on  her  part  it  is  not  difficult  to 
imagine. 

Side  by  side  with  the  punctilious  ceremony  which  is  so 
dear  to  the  Chinese  heart  is  the  apparent  inability  to  perceive 
that  some  things  must  be  disagreeable  to  other  persons,  and 
should  for  that  reason  be  avoided.  A Chinese  friend,  who 
had  not  the  smallest  idea  of  saying  what  would  be  deficient 
in  politeness,  remarked  to  the  writer  that  when  he  first  saw 
foreigners  it  seemed  most  extraordinary  that  they  should  have 
beards  that  reached  all  round  their  faces  just  like  those  of 
monkeys , but  he  added,  reassuringly,  “ I am  quite  used  to  it 
now ! ” The  teacher  who  is  asked  in  the  presence  of  his 
pupils  as  to  their  capacity,  replies  before  them  all  that  the  one 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


l99 


nearest  the  door  is  much  the  brightest,  and  will  be  a graduate 
by  the  time  he  is  twenty  years  of  age,  but  the  two  at  the  next 
table  are  certainly  the  stupidest  children  he  ever  saw.  That 
such  observations  have  any  reflex  effect  upon  the  pupils,  never 
for  a moment  enters  into  the  thought  of  any  one. 

The  whole  family  life  of  the  Chinese  illustrates  their  lack 
of  sympathy.  While  there  are  great  differences  in  different 
households,  and  while  from  the  nature  of  the  case  generalisa- 
tion is  precarious,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  most  Chinese  homes 
which  are  seen  at  all  are  by  no  means  happy  homes.  It  is 
impossible  that  they  should  be  so,  for  they  are  deficient  in 
that  unity  of  feeling  which  to  us  seems  so  essential  to  real 
home  life.  A Chinese  family  is  generally  an  association  of 
individuals  who  are  indissolubly  tied  together,  having  many 
of  their  interests  the  same,  and  many  of  them  very  different. 
The  result  is  not  our  idea  of  a home,  and  it  is  not  sympathy. 

Daughters  in  China  are  from  the  beginning  of  their  existence 
more  or  less  unwelcome.  This  fact  has  a most  important 
bearing  on  their  whole  subsequent  career,  and  furnishes  many 
significant  illustrations  of  the  absence  of  sympathy. 

Mothers  and  daughters  who  pass  their  days  in  the  nar- 
row confinement  of  a Chinese  court  under  the  conditions  of 
Chinese  life,  are  not  likely  to  lack  topics  of  disagreement,  in 
which  abusive  language  is  indulged  in  with  a freedom  which 
the  unconstraint  of  everyday  life  tends  to  promote.  It  is  a 
popular  saying,  full  of  significance  to  those  who  know  Chi- 
nese homes,  that  a mother  cannot  by  reviling  her  own  daughter 
make  her  cease  to  be  her  own  daughter!  When  a daughter 
is  once  married  she  is  regarded  as  having  no  more  relations 
with  her  family  than  those  which  are  inseparable  from  com- 
munity of  origin.  There  is  a deep-seated  reason  for  omitting 
daughters  from  all  family  registers.  She  is  no  longer  our 
daughter,  but  the  daughter-in-law  of  some  one  else.  Human 
nature  will  assert  itself  in  requiring  visits  to  the  mother’s 


200 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


home,  at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals,  according  to  the 
local  usage.  In  some  districts  these  visits  are  very  numerous 
and  very  prolonged,  while  in  others  the  custom  seems  to  be 
to  make  them  as  few  as  possible,  and  liable  to  almost  com- 
plete suspension  for  long  periods  in  case  of  a death  in  the 
family.  But  whatever  the  details  of  usage,  the  principle  holds 
good  that  the  daughter-in-law  belongs  to  the  family  of  which 
she  has  become  a part.  When  she  goes  to  her  mother’s  home, 
she  goes  on  a strictly  business  basis.  She  takes  with  her  it 
may  be  a quantity  of  sewing  for  her  husband’s  family,  which 
the  wife’s  family  must  help  her  get  through  with.  She  is  ac- 
companied on  each  of  these  visits  by  as  many  of  her  children 
as  possible,  both  to  have  her  take  care  of  them  and  to  have 
them  out  of  the  way  when  she  is  not  at  hand  to  look  after 
them,  and  most  especially  to  have  them  fed  at  the  expense  of 
the  family  of  the  maternal  grandmother  for  as  long  a time  as 
possible.  In  regions  where  visits  of  this  sort  are  frequent,  and 
where  there  are  many  daughters  in  a family,  their  constant 
raids  on  the  old  home  are  a source  of  perpetual  terror  to  the 
whole  family,  and  a serious  tax  on  the  common  resources. 
For  this  reason  these  visits  are  often  discouraged  by  the 
fathers  and  the  brothers,  while  secretly  favoured  by  the 
mothers.  But  as  local  custom  fixes  for  them  certain  epochs, 
such  as  a definite  date  after  the  New-Year,  special  feast-days, 
etc.,  the  visits  cannot  be  interdicted. 

When  the  daughter-in-law  returns  to  her  mother-in-law,  it 
is  true  of  her,  as  the  adage  says  of  a thief,  that  she  never 
comes  back  empty-handed.  She  must  take  a present  of  some 
sort  for  her  mother-in-law,  generally  food.  Neglect  of  this 
established  rite,  or  inability  to  comply  with  it,  will  soon  result 
in  dramatic  scenes.  If  the  daughter  is  married  into  a family 
which  is  poor,  or  which  has  become  so,  and  if  she  has  brothers 
who  are  married,  she  will  find  that  her  visits  to  her  mother 
are,  in  the  language  of  the  physicians,  “ contra-indicated.” 


Native  Women  Sewing  and  Weaving  L, 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


201 


There  is  war  between  the  daughters-in-law  of  a family  and  the 
married  sisters  of  the  same  family,  like  that  between  the  Phi- 
listines and  the  children  of  Israel,  each  regarding  the  territory 
as  peculiarly  its  own,  and  the  other  party  as  interlopers.  If 
the  daughters-in-law  are  strong  enough  to  do  so,  they  will, 
like  the  Philistines,  levy  a tax  upon  the  enemy  whom  they 
cannot  altogether  exterminate  or  drive  out.  A daughter-in-law 
is  regarded  as  a servant  for  the  whole  family,  which  is  pre- 
cisely her  position,  and  in  getting  a servant  it  is  obviously  de- 
sirable to  get  one  who  is  strong  and  well  grown,  and  who  has 
already  been  taught  the  domestic  accomplishments  of  cook- 
ing, sewing,  and  whatever  industries  may  be  the  means  of 
livelihood  in  that  particular  region,  rather  than  a child  who 
has  little  strength  or  capacity.  Thus  we  have  known  of  a 
case  where  a buxom  young  woman  of  twenty  was  married  to 
a slip  of  a boy  literally  only  half  her  age,  and  in  the  early 
years  of  their  wedded  life  she  had  the  pleasure  of  nursing  him 
through  the  smallpox,  which  is  considered  as  a disease  of  in- 
fancy. 

The  woes  of  daughters-in-law  in  China  should  form  the 
subject  rather  for  a chapter  than  for  a brief  paragraph.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  all  Chinese  women  marry,  and  gener- 
ally marry  young,  being  for  a considerable  part  of  their  lives 
under  the  absolute  control  of  a mother-in-law,  some  faint  con- 
ception may  be  gained  of  the  intolerable  miseries  of  those 
daughters-in-law  who  live  in  families  where  they  are  abused. 
Parents  can  do  absolutely  nothing  to  protect  their  married 
daughters,  other  than  remonstrating  with  the  families  into 
which  they  have  married,  and  exacting  an  expensive  funeral 
if  the  daughters  should  be  actually  driven  to  suicide.  If  a 
husband  should  seriously  injure  or  even  kill  his  wife,  he  might 
escape  all  legal  consequences  by  representing  that  she  was 
“ unfilial  ” to  his  parents.  Suicides  of  young  wives  are,  we 
must  repeat,  excessively  frequent,  and  in  some  regions  scarcely 


202 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


a group  of  villages  can  be  found  where  they  have  not  recently 
taken  place.  What  can  be  more  pitiful  than  a mother’s  re- 
proaches to  a married  daughter  who  has  attempted  suicide  and 
been  rescued : “ Why  didn’t  you  die  when  you  had  a chance?  ” 

The  Governor  of  Honan,  in  a memorial  published  in  the 
Peking  Gazette  a few  years  ago,  showed  incidentally  that  while 
there  is  responsibility  in  the  eye  of  the  law  for  the  murder  of 
a child  by  a parent,  this  is  rendered  nugatory  by  the  provision 
that  even  if  a married  woman  should  wilfully  and  maliciously 
murder  her  young  daughter-in-law,  the  murderess  may  ransom 
herself  by  a money  payment.  The  case  reported  was  that  in 
which  a woman  had  burned  the  girl  who  was  reared  to  become 
her  son’s  wife  with  incense  sticks,  then  roasted  her  cheeks  with 
red-hot  pincers,  and  finally  boiled  her  to  death  with  kettlefuls 
of  scalding  water.  Other  similar  instances  are  referred  to  in 
the  same  memorial,  the  source  of  which  places  its  authenticity 
beyond  doubt.  Such  extreme  barbarities  are  probably  rare, 
but  the  cases  of  cruel  treatment  which  are  so  aggravated  as  to 
lead  to  suicide,  or  to  an  attempt  at  suicide,  are  so  frequent  as 
to  excite  little  more  than  passing  comment.  The  writer  is 
personally  acquainted  with  many  families  in  which  these  oc- 
currences have  taken  place. 

The  lot  of  Chinese  concubines  is  one  of  exceeding  bitter- 
ness. The  homes  in  which  they  are  to  be  found — happily 
relatively  few  in  number — are  the  scenes  of  incessant  bicker- 
ings and  open  warfare.  “ The  magistrate  of  the  city  in  which 
I live,”  writes  a resident  of  China  of  long  experience,  “ was  a 
wealthy  man,  a great  scholar,  a doctor  of  literature,  an  able 
administrator,  well  acquainted  with  the  good  teachings  of  the 
Classics;  but  he  would  lie  and  curse  and  rob,  and  torture 
people  to  any  extent  to  gratify  his  evil  passions.  One  of 
his  concubines  ran  away ; she  was  captured,  brought  back, 
stripped,  hung  up  to  a beam  by  her  feet,  and  cruelly  and 
severely  beaten.” 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


203 


In  a country  like  China  the  poor  have  no  time  to  be  sick. 
Ailments  of  women  and  children  are  apt  to  be  treated  by  the 
men  of  the  family  as  of  no  consequence,  and  are  constantly 
allowed  to  run  into  incurable  maladies,  because  there  was 
no  time  to  attend  to  them,  or  because  the  man  “could  not 
afford  it.” 

As  we  have  noticed  in  speaking  of  filial  piety,  it  is  a con- 
stituent part  of  the  theory  that  the  younger  are  relatively  of 
little  account.  They  are  valued  principally  for  what  they  may 
become,  and  not  for  what  they  are.  Thus  the  practice  of 
most  Western  lands  is  in  China  reversed.  The  youngest  of 
three  travellers  is  proverbially  made  to  take  the  brunt  of  all 
hardships.  The  youngest  servant  is  uniformly  the  common 
drudge  of  the  rest.  In  the  grinding  poverty  of  the  mass  of 
the  people,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  spirit  even  of  a Chinese 
boy  often  rebels  against  the  sharp  limitations  to  which  he  finds 
himself  pinned,  and  that  he  not  infrequently  runs  away.  The 
boy  who  has  made  up  his  mind  to  go  will  seldom  fail  to 
find  some  slight  thread  by  which  he  may  attach  himself  to 
some  one  else.  The  causes  for  this  behaviour  on  the  part  of 
boys  are  various,  but  so  far  as  we  have  observed,  the  harsh 
treatment  of  others  is  by  far  the  most  common.  In  a case  of 
this  sort,  a boy  recently  recovered  from  a run  of  typhus  fever, 
being  possessed  by  the  hearty  appetite  common  to  such  patients, 
and  finding  the  coarse  black  bread  of  the  family  fare  hard  eat- 
ing, went  to  a local  market  and  indulged  in  the  luxury  of  ex- 
pending cash  to  the  value  of  about  twenty  cents.  For  this  he 
was  severely  reproved  by  his  father,  upon  which  the  lad  ran 
away  to  Manchuria,  an  unfailing  resort  of  lads  all  over  the 
northeastern  provinces,  and  was  never  heard  of  again. 

It  was  a saying  of  George  D.  Prentice,  that  man  was  the 
principal  object  in  creation,  woman  being  merely  “ a side  issue.” 
The  phrase  is  a literal  expression  of  the  position  of  a wife  in  a 
Chinese  family.  The  object  had  in  view  in  matrimony  by  the 


204 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


family  of  the  girl  is  to  get  rid  of  supporting  her.  The  object 
on  the  part  of  the  husband’s  family  is  to  propagate  that  family. 
These  objects  are  not  in  themselves  open  to  criticism,  except 
on  the  ground  of  a too  complete  occupation  of  the  field  of 
human  motives.  But  in  China  no  one  indulges  in  any  illu- 
sions on  the  subject. 

That  which  is  true  of  the  marriages  of  those  in  the  ordinary 
walks  of  life  is  pre-eminently  true  of  the  poorer  classes.  It 
is  a common  observation  in  regard  to  a widow  who  has  re- 
married, that  “ now  she  will  not  starve.”  It  is  a popular  prov- 
erb that  a second  husband  and  a second  wife  are  husband 
and  wife  only  as  long  as  there  is  anything  to  eat ; when  the 
food-supply  fails  each  shifts  for  himself.  In  times  of  famine 
relief  cases  have  often  been  observed  where  the  husband  sim- 
ply abandons  the  wife  and  the  children,  leaving  them  to  pick 
up  a wretched  subsistence  or  to  starve.  In  many  instances 
daughters-in-law  were  sent  back  to  their  mothers’  family  to  be 
supported  or  starved  as  the  event  might  be.  “ She  is  your 
daughter,  take  care  of  her  yourself.”  In  other  cases  where 
special  food  was  given  by  distributers  of  famine  relief  to 
women  who  were  nursing  small  infants,  it  was  sometimes  found 
that  this  allowance  had  been  taken  from  the  women  and  de- 
voured by  the  men,  although  these  instances  were  probably 
exceptional. 

While  it  would  be  obviously  unfair  to  judge  a people  only 
by  the  phenomena  of  such  years  as  those  of  great  famine,  there 
is  an  important  sense  in  which  such  occasions  are  a species  of 
touchstone  by  which  the  underlying  principles  of  social  life 
may  be  ascertained  with  more  accuracy  and  certainty  than 
on  ordinary  occasions.  The  sale  of  wives  and  of  children  in 
China  is  a practice  not  confined  to  years  of  peculiar  distress, 
but  during  those  years  it  is  carried  on  to  an  extent  which 
throws  all  ordinary  transactions  of  this  nature  into  insignif- 
icance. It  is  perfectly  well  known  to  those  acquainted  with 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


205 


the  facts,  that  during  several  recent  years  in  many  districts 
stricken  with  famine,  the  sale  of  women  and  children  was  con- 
ducted as  openly  as  that  of  mules  and  donkeys,  the  only  es- 
sential difference  being  that  the  former  were  not  driven  to 
market.  During  the  great  famine  of  1878,  which  extended 
over  nearly  all  parts  of  the  three  most  northern  provinces,  as 
well  as  further  south,  so  extensive  a traffic  sprung  up  in  women 
and  girls  who  were  exported  to  the  central  provinces  that  in 
some  places  it  was  difficult  to  hire  a cart,  as  they  had  all  been 
engaged  in  the  transportation  of  the  newly  purchased  females 
to  the  regions  where  they  were  to  be  disposed  of.  In  these 
cases  young  women  were  taken  from  a region  where  they  were 
in  a condition  of  starvation,  and  where  the  population  was  too 
redundant,  to  a region  which  had  been  depopulated  by  rebels, 
and  where  for  many  years  wives  had  been  hard  to  procure. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  melancholy  features  of  this  strange  state 
of  affairs,  that  the  enforced  sales  of  members  of  Chinese  fami- 
lies to  distant  provinces  was  probably  the  best  thing  for  all 
parties,  and  perhaps  the  only  way  in  which  the  lives,  both  of 
those  who  were  sold  as  well  as  the  lives  of  those  who  sold  them, 
could  be  preserved. 

We  have  referred  to  the  common  neglect  of  sickness  in  the 
family  because  the  victims  are  “ only  women  and  children.” 
Smallpox,  which  in  Western  lands  we  regard  as  a terrible 
scourge,  is  so  constant  a visitor  in  China  that  the  people  never 
expect  to  be  free  from  its  ravages.  But  it  is  not  much  thought 
of,  because  its  victims  are  mainly  children!  It  is  exceedingly 
common  to  meet  with  persons  who  have  lost  the  sight  of  both 
eyes  in  consequence  of  this  disease.  The  comparative  disre- 
gard of  the  value  of  infant  life  is  displayed  in  ways  which  we 
should  by  no  means  have  expected  from  the  Chinese,  wrho  ob- 
ject so  strongly  to  the  mutilation  of  the  human  body.  Young 
children  are  often  either  not  buried  at  all,  an  ordinary  ex- 
pression for  their  death  being  the  phrase  “ thrown  out,”  or  if 


206 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


rolled  in  a mat,  they  are  so  loosely  covered  that  they  soon  fall  a 
prey  to  dogs.  In  some  places  the  horrible  custom  prevails  of 
crushing  the  body  of  a deceased  infant  into  an  indistinguish- 
able mass,  in  order  to  prevent  the  “ devil  ” which  inhabited  it 
from  returning  to  vex  the  family! 

While  the  Chinese  are  so  indifferent  to  smallpox,  our  fear 
of  which  they  fail  to  appreciate,  they  have  a similar  dread  of 
typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  which  are  regarded  much  as  we 
regard  the  scarlet  fever.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  proper  at- 
tention, or  any  attention  at  all,  if  one  happens  to  be  taken 
with  either  of  these  diseases  when  away  from  home.  To  all 
appeals  for  help  it  is  a conclusive  reply,  “ That  disease  is  con- 
tagious.” While  this  is  true  to  some  extent  of  many  fevers,  it 
is  perhaps  most  conspicuous  in  a terrible  scourge  found  in 
some  of  the  valleys  of  Yunnan,  and  described  by  Mr.  Baber:* 
“ The  sufferer  is  soon  seized  with  extreme  weakness,  followed 
in  a few  hours  by  agonising  aches  in  every  part  of  the  body ; 
delirium  shortly  ensues,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  result 
is  fatal.”  According  to  the  native  accounts:  “All  parts  of 
the  sick-room  are  occupied  by  devils ; even  the  tables  and 
mattresses  writhe  about  and  utter  voices,  and  offer  intelligible 
replies  to  all  who  question  them.  Few,  however,  venture  into 
the  chamber.  The  missionary  assured  me  that  the  patient  is, 
in  most  cases,  deserted  like  a leper,  for  fear  of  contagion.  If 
an  elder  member  of  the  family  is  attacked,  the  best  attention 
he  receives  is  to  be  placed  in  a solitary  room  with  a vessel  of 
water  by  his  side.  The  door  is  secured,  and  a pole  laid  near 
it,  with  which  twice  a day  the  anxious  relatives,  cautiously 
peering  in,  poke  and  prod  the  sick  person  to  discover  if  he  re- 
tains any  symptoms  of  life.” 

Among  a people  of  so  mild  a disposition  as  the  Chinese 
there  must  be  a great  deal  of  domestic  kindness  of  which 
nothing  is  seen  or  heard.  Sickness  and  trouble  are  peculiarly 
* “ Travels  and  Researches  in  Western  China.” 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


207 


adapted  to  call  out  the  best  side  of  human  nature,  and  in  a 
foreign  hospital  for  Chinese  we  have  witnessed  many  instances 
of  devotion  not  merely  on  the  part  of  parents  towards  children, 
or  children  towards  parents,  but  of  wives  towards  husbands 
and  also  of  husbands  towards  wives.  The  same  thing  is  even 
more  common  among  strangers  towards  one  another.  Many  a 
Chinese  mother  nursing  an  infant  will  give  of  her  overflowing 
abundance  to  a motherless  child  which  else  might  starve. 

Unwillingness  to  give  help  to  others,  unless  there  is  some 
special  reason  for  doing  so,  is  a trait  that  runs  through  Chinese 
social  relations  in  multifold  manifestations.  It  is  a common 
and  in  many  cases  a perfectly  valid  excuse  which  is  made  when 
a bright  boy  is  advised  to  try  to  learn  to  read  a little,  although 
he  has  no  opportunity  to  go  to  school,  that  no  one  will  tell  him 
the  characters,  although  there  may  be  plenty  of  reading  men 
within  reach  who  have  abundant  leisure.  The  very  mention 
of  such  an  ambition  is  certain  to  excite  unmeasured  ridicule 
on  the  part  of  those  who  have  had  the  longest  experience  of 
Chinese  schools,  as  if  they  were  saying : “ By  what  right  does 
this  fellow  think  to  take  a short  cut,  and  pick  up  in  a few 
months  what  cost  us  years  of  toil,  and  then  was  forgotten  in 
half  the  time  which  we  took  to  get  it?  Let  him  hire  a teacher 
for  himself  as  we  did.”  It  is  very  rare  indeed  to  meet  with  a 
genuine  case  of  one  who  has  anything  which  can  be  called  a 
knowledge  of  characters,  even  of  the  most  elementary  descrip- 
tion, which  he  has  “ picked  up  ” for  himself,  though  such  cases 
do  occasionally  occur. 

The  general  omission  to  do  anything  for  the  relief  of  the 
drowning  strikes  every  foreigner  in  China.  A few  years  ago 
a foreign  steamship  was  burned  in  the  Yang-tze  River,  and 
the  crowds  of  Chinese  who  gathered  to  witness  the  event  did 
little  or  nothing  to  rescue  the  passengers  and  crew.  As  fast 
as  they  made  their  way  to  the  shore  many  of  them  were  robbed 
even  of  the  clothing  which  they  had  on,  and  some  were  mur- 


2o8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


dered  outright.  Yet  it  should  be  remarked  in  connection  with 
such  atrocities  as  this,  that  it  is  not  so  very  long  ago  that 
wrecking  was  a profession  in  England.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  autumn  of  1892  a large  British  steamer  went  ashore  on  the 
China  coast,  and  both  the  local  fishermen  and  the  officials  did 
everything  in  their  power  to  rescue  and  relieve  the  survivors. 
It  remains  true,  however,  that  there  is  in  China  a general  cal- 
lousness to  the  many  cases  of  distress  which  are  to  be  seen 
almost  everywhere,  especially  along  lines  of  travel.  It  is  a 
common  proverb  that  to  be  poor  at  home  is  not  to  be  counted 
as  poverty,  but  to  be  poor  when  on  the  high-road,  away  from 
home,  will  cost  a man  his  life. 

It  is  in  travelling  in  China  that  the  absence  of  helpful  kind- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  people  towards  strangers  is  perhaps 
most  conspicuous.  When  the  summer  rains  have  made  all 
land  travel  almost  impossible,  he  whose  circumstances  make 
travel  a necessity  will  find  that  “ heaven,  earth,  and  man  ” are 
a threefold  harmony  in  combination  against  him.  No  one 
will  inform  him  that  the  road  which  he  has  taken  will  pres- 
ently end  in  a quagmire.  If  you  choose  to  drive  into  a 
morass,  it  is  no  business  of  the  contiguous  tax-payers.  We 
have  spoken  of  the  neglect  of  Chinese  highways.  When  the 
traveller  has  been  plunged  into  one  of  the  sloughs  with  which 
all  such  roads  at  certain  seasons  abound,  and  finds  it  impossi- 
ble to  extricate  himself,  a great  crowd  of  persons  will  rapidly 
gather  from  somewhere,  “ their  hands  in  their  sleeves,  and  idly 
gazing,”  as  the  saying  goes.  It  is  not  until  a definite  bargain 
has  been  made  with  them  that  any  one  of  these  bystanders, 
no  matter  how  numerous,  will  lift  a finger  to  help  one  in  any 
particular.  Not  only  so,  but  it  is  a constant  practice  on  such 
occasions  for  the  local  rustics  to  dig  deep  pits  in  difficult 
places,  with  the  express  purpose  of  trapping  the  traveller,  that 
he  may  be  obliged  to  employ  these  same  rustics  to  help  the 
traveller  out!  When  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  road  in 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


209 


such  places,  one  might  as  well  plunge  forward,  disregarding 
the  cautions  of  those  native  to  the  spot,  since  one  can  never 
be  sure  that  the  directions  given  are  not  designed  to  hinder 
rather  than  help. 

We  have  heard  of  one  instance  in  which  a foreign  family, 
moving  into  an  interior  city  of  China,  was  welcomed  with 
apparent  cordiality  by  the  people,  the  neighbours  even  volun- 
teering to  lend  them  articles  for  housekeeping  until  such  time 
as  they  might  be  able  to  procure  an  outfit  of  their  own.  Other 
examples  there  doubtless  are,  but  it  is  well  known  that  these 
are  wholly  exceptional.  By  far  the  most  usual  reception  is 
total  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  people,  except  so  far  as 
curiosity  is  excited  to  see  what  the  new-comers  are  like ; a 
spirit  of  cupidity  to  make  the  most  of  the  fat  geese  whom  fate 
has  sent  thither  to  be  plucked ; and  sullen  hostility.  In  the 
case  of  foreigners  who  may  have  been  reduced  to  distress, 
we  have  never  heard  of  any  assistance  voluntarily  given  by 
Chinese,  though  of  course  there  may  have  been  such  cases. 
We  have  known  of  instances  in  which  sailors  have  attempted 
the  journey  overland  from  Tientsin  to  Chefoo,  and  from  Can- 
ton to  Swatow,  and  during  the  whole  time  of  their  travel  they 
were  never  once  given  a lodging  or  a mouthful  of  food. 

It  is  often  difficult,  and  frequently  impossible,  for  those 
who  are  taking  a dead  body  home  to  secure  admission  to  an 
inn.  We  have  known  a case  of  this  sort  where  the  brother 
of  the  deceased  was  obliged  to  stand  guard  all  night  in  the 
street,  because  the  landlord  would  not  allow  the  coffin  to  come 
within  the  gate.  An  extortionate  price  is  exacted  for  ferrying 
a corpse  over  a river,  and  we  have  been  cognisant  of  several 
instances  in  which  a dead  body  has  been  doubled  up  into  a 
parcel  and  tied  with  mat  wrappings,  to  make  it  appear  like 
merchandise,  to  avoid  suspicion.  It  was  reported  during  a 
recent  severe  winter  in  Shantung,  that  the  keeper  of  an  inn  in 
the  city  of  Wei  Hsien  refused  to  allow  several  travellers  who 


210 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


were  half  dead  with  cold  to  enter  his  inn,  lest  they  should  die 
there,  but  turned  them  into  the  street,  where  they  all  froze  to 
death! 

There  are  some  crimes  committed  in  China  for  which  the 
perpetrators  are  often  not  prosecuted  before  a magistrate, 
partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  securing  a 
conviction,  and  partly  because  of  the  shame  of  publicity. 
Many  cases  of  adultery  are  thus  dealt  with  by  the  law  of 
private  revenge.  The  offender  is  attacked  by  a large  band 
of  men,  on  the  familiar  Chinese  principle  that  “ where  there 
are  many  persons,  their  prestige  is  great.”  Sometimes  the 
man’s  legs  are  broken,  sometimes  his  arms,  and  very  often  his 
eyes  are  destroyed  by  rubbing  into  them  quicklime.  The 
writer  has  known  several  instances  of  this  sort,  and  they  are 
certainly  not  uncommon.  A very  intelligent  Chinese,  himself 
not  unfamiliar  with  Occidental  ways  of  thought,  upon  hear- 
ing a foreigner  remonstrate  against  this  practice  as  a refine- 
ment of  cruelty,  expressed  unfeigned  surprise,  and  remarked 
that  in  China  such  a mode  of  dealing  with  a criminal  is 
thought  to  be  " extremely  mild,”  as  he  is  thus  merely  maimed 
for  life,  when  he  really  ought  to  be  killed ! 

" What  do  you  keep  coming  here  to  eat  for?  ” said  a sister- 
in-law  to  her  husband’s  brother,  who  had  been  away  for 
several  years,  and  having  got  into  trouble  had  had  his  eyes 
rubbed  out  with  quicklime.  “We  have  no  place  for  you.  If 
you  want  something  hard,  here  is  a knife ; and  if  you  want 
something  soft,  there  is  a rope ; so  get  along  with  you.”  This 
conversation  was  mentioned  incidentally  by  an  incurably  blind 
man,  as  an  explanation  of  his  desire  to  get  a little  sight  if  that 
were  possible,  but  if  not,  he  intimated  that  either  the  “hard” 
or  the  “soft”  could  be  made  to  adjust  his  difficulties.  It  is 
rare  to  hear  of  any  instances  in  which  the  victim  of  such  out- 
rages succeeds  in  getting  a complaint  heard  before  a mag- 
istrate. The  evidence  against  him  would  be  overwhelming, 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


2 I I 


and  nine  officials  out  of  ten  would  probably  consider  that  the 
man  who  had  been  thus  dealt  with  deserved  it  all,  and  more. 
Even  if  the  man  were  to  win  his  case,  he  would  be  no  better 
off  than  before,  but  rather  the  worse,  as  the  irritation  of  his 
neighbours  would  only  be  increased,  and  his  life  would  not 
be  safe. 

It  must  be  understood  that  despite  the  sacredness  of  human 
life  in  China,  there  are  circumstances  in  which  it  is  worth  very 
little.  One  of  the  crimes  which  are  most  exasperating  to  the 
Chinese  is  theft.  In  a crowded  population  always  on  the 
edge  of  ruin,  this  is  regarded  as  a menace  to  society  only  less 
serious  than  murder.  In  a time  of  famine  relief  one  of  the 
distributers  found  an  insane  woman,  who  had  become  a klep- 
tomaniac, chained  to  a huge  mill-stone  as  if  she  were  a mad 
dog.  If  a person  becomes  known  as  a thief  or  in  other  ways 
is  a public  nuisance,  he  is  in  danger  of  being  made  away  with 
by  a summary  process,  not  differing  essentially  from  the  vigi- 
lance committees  of  the  early  days  of  California.  Sometimes 
this  is  done  by  stabbing,  but  the  method  most  frequently 
adopted  is  burying  alive.  Doubtless  there  are  those  who  sup- 
pose this  expression  to  be  a mere  figure  of  speech,  as  when 
(according  to  some)  one  is  said  “ to  swallow  gold.”  It  is,  on 
the  contrary,  a very  serious  reality.  The  writer  is  acquainted 
with  four  persons  who  were  threatened  with  death  in  this  form. 
In  two  instances  they  were  bound  as  a preliminary,  and  in  one 
case  the  pit  was  actually  dug,  and  in  all  cases  the  burial  was 
only  prevented  by  the  intervention  of  some  older  member  of 
the  attacking  party.  In  another  instance,  occurring  in  a vil- 
lage where  the  writer  is  well  acquainted,  a young  man  who 
was  known  to  be  insane  was  an  incorrigible  thief.  A party  of 
the  villagers  belonging  to  his  own  family  only  “ consulted  ” ( ! ) 
with  his  mother,  and  as  the  result  of  their  deliberations  he  was 
bound,  a hole  made  in  the  ice  covering  the  river  flowing  near 
the  village,  and  the  youth  was  dropped  in. 


212 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


During  the  years  in  which  the  refluent  waves  of  the  great 
T‘ai-p‘ing  rebellion  overspread  so  large  a part  of  China,  the 
excitement  was  everywhere  intense.  At  such  times  a stranger 
had  but  to  be  suspected  to  be  seized,  and  subjected  to  a rig- 
orous examination.  If  he  could  give  no  account  of  himself 
which  was  satisfactory  to  his  captors,  it  went  hard  with  him. 
Within  a few  hundred  yards  of  the  spot  at  which  these  lines 
are  written  two  such  tragedies  occurred,  little  more  than 
twenty  years  ago.  The  magistrates  found  themselves  almost 
powerless  to  enforce  the  laws,  and  issued  semi-official  notifi- 
cations to  the  people  to  seize  all  suspicious  characters.  The 
villagers  saw  a man  coming  on  a horse,  who  looked  as  if  he 
were  a native  of  another  province,  and  who  failed  to  give  ade- 
quate explanations  of  his  antecedents.  His  bedding  being 
found  to  be  full  of  articles  of  jewellery,  which  he  had  evidently 
plundered  from  somewhere,  the  man  was  tied  up,  a pit  was 
dug,  and  the  victim  tumbled  into  it.  While  this  was  going 
on  another  was  seen  racing  across  the  fields  in  a terrified 
manner,  and  it  needed  but  the  suggestion  of  some  bystander 
that  he  was  probably  an  accomplice,  to  secure  for  the  second 
victim  the  same  fate  as  the  first.  In  some  cases  the  strangers 
were  compelled  to  dig  their  own  graves.  Any  native  of  the 
provinces  of  China  principally  affected  by  the  lawlessness  of 
those  lawless  times,  old  enough  to  recollect  the  circumstances, 
will  testify  that  instances  of  this  sort  were  too  numerous  to  be 
remembered  or  counted.  In  the  epoch  of  terror  caused  by  a 
mysterious  cutting  off  of  cues,  in  the  year  1877,  an  intense 
panic  seemed  to  pervade  a large  part  of  the  Empire,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  many  persons  who  were  suspected  were 
made  away  with  in  this  manner.  Such  periods  of  panic,  how- 
ever, under  certain  conditions,  are  common  to  all  races,  and 
must  not  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Chinese  as  a unique 
phenomenon. 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  all  the  many  exhibitions  of  the 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


213 


Chinese  lack  of  sympathy  is  to  be  found  in  their  cruelty.  It 
is  popularly  believed  by  the  Chinese  that  the  Mohammedans 
in  China  are  more  cruel  than  the  Chinese  themselves.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  any 
one  who  knows  the  Chinese  that  they  display  an  indifference 
to  the  sufferings  of  others  which  is  probably  not  to  be  matched 
in  any  other  civilised  country.  Though  children  at  home  are 
almost  wholly  ungoverned,  yet  the  moment  their  career  of  edu- 
cation is  begun  the  reign  of  mildness  ceases.  The  “ Trimetri- 
cal  Classic,”  the  most  general  of  the  minor  text-books  of  the 
Empire,  contains  a line  to  the  effect  that  to  teach  without 
severity  is  a fault  in  a teacher.  While  this  motto  is  very 
variously  acted  upon,  according  to  the  temperament  of  the 
pedagogue  and  the  obtuseness  of  his  pupils,  great  harshness 
is  certainly  common.  We  have  seen  a scholar  fresh  from  a 
preceptor  who  was  struggling  to  induct  his  pupils  into  the 
mysteries  of  examination  essays,  when  the  former  presented 
the  appearance  of  having  been  through  a street  fight,  his  head 
covered  with  wounds  and  streaming  with  blood.  It  is  not 
rare  that  pupils  are  thrown  into  fits  from  the  abuse  which 
they  receive  from  angry  teachers.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  unusual  for  mothers  whose  children  are  so  unfortunate  as 
to  be  subject  to  fits,  to  beat  them  in  those  paroxysms,  as  an 
expression  of  the  extreme  disgust  which  such  inconvenient 
attacks  excite.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  mothers 
who  can  beat  children  because  they  fall  into  convulsions  will 
treat  any  of  their  children  with  cruelty  when  irritated  by 
special  provocation. 

Another  example  of  “ absence  of  sympathy  ” on  the  part  of 
the  Chinese  is  their  system  of  punishments.  It  is  not  easy, 
from  an  examination  of  the  legal  code  of  the  Empire,  to  as- 
certain what  is  and  what  is  not  in  accordance  with  law,  for 
custom  seems  to  have  sanctioned  many  deviations  from  the 
letter  of  the  statutes.  One  of  the  most  significant  of  these  is 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


214 

the  enormous  number  of  blows  with  the  bamboo  which  are 
constantly  resorted  to,  often  ten  times  the  number  named  in 
the  law,  and  sometimes  one  hundred  times  as  many.  We 
have  no  space  even  to  mention  the  dreadful  tortures  which 
are  inflicted  upon  Chinese  prisoners  in  the  name  of  justice. 
They  may  be  found  enumerated  in  any  good  work  on  China, 
such  as  “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  or  “ Hue’s  Travels.”  The 
latter  author  mentions  seeing  prisoners  on  the  way  to  the 
yamen,  with  their  hands  nailed  to  the  cart  in  which  they  were 
conveyed,  because  the  constables  had  forgotten  to  bring  fet- 
ters. Nothing  so  illustrates  the  proposition  that  though  the 
Chinese  have  “ bowels,”  they  certainly  have  no  “ mercies,”  as 
the  deliberate,  routine  cruelty  with  which  all  Chinese  prisoners 
are  treated  who  cannot  pay  for  their  exemption.  A few  years 
ago  the  press  of  Shanghai  chronicled  the  infliction  upon  two 
old  prisoners  in  the  yamen  of  the  District  Magistrate  of  that 
city  of  a sentence  for  levying  blackmail  on  a new  prisoner. 
They  received  between  two  thousand  and  three  thousand 
blows  with  the  bamboo,  and  had  their  ankles  broken  with  an 
iron  hammer.  Is  it  strange  that  the  Chinese  adage  advises 
the  dead  to  keep  out  of  hell  and  the  living  to  keep  out  of 
yamens  ? * 

Since  the  preceding  paragraphs  were  written  an  unexpected 
confirmation  of  some  of  the  statements  made  has  appeared 

* A Chinese  who  is  practising  law  in  the  United  States,  Mr.  Hang 
Yen-chang,  in  an  article  on  the  administration  of  the  law  in  China,  pub- 
lished in  a leading  religious  journal,  quotes  what  has  been  hereinbefore 
said  of  the  Chinese  “ absence  of  nerves,”  remarking  that  the  punish- 
ments of  the  Chinese  are  not  regarded  by  themselves  as  cruel.  While 
we  are  unable  to  agree  with  this  view,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
Chinese  being  what  they  are,  their  laws  and  their  customs  being  as  they 
are,  it  would  probably  be  wholly  impracticable  to  introduce  any  essential 
amelioration  of  their  punishments  without  a thoroughgoing  reformation 
of  the  Chinese  people  as  individuals.  Physical  force  cannot  safely  be 
abandoned  until  some  moral  force  is  at  hand  adequate  to  take  its  place. 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SYMPATHY 


215 


from  a most  unimpeachable  source.  The  following  is  an 
extract  from  a translation  of  the  Peking  Gazette  of  February 
7,  1888 : 

“ The  Governor  of  Yunnan  states  that  in  some  of  the  coun- 
try districts  of  that  province  the  villagers  have  a horrible 
custom  of  burning  to  death  any  man  caught  stealing  corn  or 
fruits  in  the  fields.  They  at  the  same  time  compel  the  man’s 
relations  to  sign  a document,  giving  their  consent  to  what  is 
done,  and  then  make  them  light  the  fire  with  their  own  hands, 
so  as  to  deter  them  from  lodging  a complaint  afterwards. 
Sometimes  the  horrible  penalty  is  exacted  for  the  breaking  of 
a single  branch  or  stalk,  or  even  false  accusations  are  made, 
and  men  put  to  death  out  of  spite.  This  terrible  practice, 
which  seems  incredible  when  heard,  came  into  use  during  the 
time  of  the  Yunnan  rebellion;  and  the  constant  efforts  of  the 
authorities  have  not  succeeded  in  extirpating  it  since.” 

Native  Chinese  newspapers  have  within  a few  years  con- 
tained detailed  accounts  of  an  enforced  suttee  practised  in  a 
district  near  Foochow.  Widows  are  compelled  to  strangle 
themselves,  and  their  bodies  are  then  burned,  after  which 
ornamental  portals  are  erected  to  their  virtuous  memory! 
Magistrates  have  in  vain  endeavoured  to  stop  this  cruel  cus- 
tom, but  their  success  has  been  only  local  and  temporary. 

China  has  many  needs,  among  which  her  leading  states- 
men place  armies,  navies,  and  arsenals.  To  her  foreign  well- 
wishers  it  is  plain  that  she  needs  a currency,  railways,  and 
scientific  instruction.  But  does  not  a deeper  diagnosis  of  the 
conditions  of  the  Empire  indicate  that  one  of  her  profoundest 
needs  is  more  human  sympathy  ? She  needs  to  feel  with 
childhood  that  sympathy  which  for  eighteen  centimes  has 
been  one  of  the  choicest  possessions  of  races  and  peoples 
which  once  knew  it  not.  She  needs  to  feel  sympathy  for 
wives  and  for  mothers,  a sympathy  -which  eighteen  centuries 
have  done  so  much  to  develop  and  to  deepen.  She  needs  to 


216  CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 

feel  sympathy  for  man  as  man,  to  learn  that  quality  of  mercy 
which  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven,  twice  blest  in 
blessing  him  that  gives  and  him  that  takes — that  divine  com- 
passion which  Seneca  declared  to  be  “ a vice  of  the  mind,” 
but  which  the  influence  of  Christianity  has  cultivated  until  it 
has  become  the  fairest  plant  that  ever  bloomed  upon  the  earth, 
the  virtue  in  the  exercise  of  which  man  most  resembles  God. 


Four  Generations. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


SOCIAL  TYPHOONS 


dONG  a population  of  such  unexampled  density  as  in 


China,  where  families  often  of  great  size  are  crowded 
together  in  narrow  quarters,  it  is  impossible  that  occasions  for 
quarrels  should  not  be  all-pervasive.  “ How  many  are  there 
in  your  family?”  you  inquire  of  your  neighbour.  “Between 
ten  and  twenty  mouths,”  he  replies.  “And  do  you  have 
everything  in  common?”  you  ask.  “Yes,”  is  the  most  com- 
mon reply.  Here,  then,  are  fifteen  or  twenty  human  beings, 
probably  representing  three,  if  not  four,  generations,  who  live 
from  the  income  of  the  same  business  or  farm,  an  income 
which  is  all  put  into  a common  stock ; and  the  wants  of  all 
the  members  of  the  family  are  to  be  met  solely  from  this 
common  property.  The  brothers  each  contribute  their  time 
and  strength  to  the  common  fund,  but  the  sisters-in-law  are 
an  element  of  capital  importance,  and  very  difficult  it  is  to 
harmonise  them.  The  elder  sister-in-law  enjoys  tyrannising 
somewhat  over  the  younger,  and  the  younger  ones  are  natu- 
rally jealous  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  elder.  Each  strives  to 
make  her  husband  feel  that  in  this  community  of  property  he 
is  the  one  who  is  worsted.  , 

The  younger  generation  of  children  furnish  a prolific  source 
of  domestic  unpleasantness.  Where  is  the  society  capable  of 
withstanding  the  strain  to  which  it  must  be  subjected  under 
conditions  such  as  these?  Troubles  of  this  nature  are  far  from 


217 


2l8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


being  uncommon  in  well-ordered  homes  in  Western  lands ; how 
much  more  in  the  complex  and  compact  life  of  the  Chinese  ! 
The  occasions  for  differences  are  as  numerous  as  the  objects 
and  interests  with  which  human  beings  have  to  do.  Money, 
food,  clothes,  children  and  their  squabbles,  a dog,  a chicken, 
anything  or  nothing,  will  serve  as  the  first  loop  on  which  will 
be  knit  a complicated  tangle  of  quarrel. 

One  of  the  most  enigmatical  characters  in  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage is  that  which  is  used  to  denote  the  rise  of  passion,  and 
which  has  been  euphemistically  translated  “ wrath-matter.” 
The  word  “ch'i"  is  a most  important  one  in  all  kinds  of 
Chinese  philosophy  and  in  practical  life.  Ch'i  is  generated 
when  a man  becomes  very  angry,  and  the  Chinese  believe 
that  there  is  some  deadly  connection  between  this  developed 
“ wrath-matter  ” and  the  human  system  generally,  so  that  a 
violent  passion  is  constantly  named  as  the  exciting  cause  of 
all  varieties  of  diseases  and  ailments,  such  as  blindness,  failure 
of  the  heart,  etc.  One  of  the  first  questions  which  a Chinese 
doctor  asks  his  patient  is,  “ What  was  it  that  threw  you  into  a 
passion?  ” Foreign  physicians  in  China  of  wide  experience 
are  ready  to  believe  that  Chinese  ch'i  is  capable  of  producing 
all  that  is  claimed  for  it  by  the  Chinese  themselves.  Of  this 
the  following  case  is  a striking  illustration : A man  living  in 
the  mountains  in  central  Shantung  had  a wife  and  several 
children,  two  of  them  of  tender  age.  In  October,  1889,  the 
wife  died.  This  made  the  husband  very  angry,  not,  as  he 
explained,  in  answer  to  a question,  because  he  was  specially 
attached  to  his  wife,  but  because  he  could  not  see  how  he  was 
to  manage  the  small  children.  In  a paroxysm  of  fury  he 
seized  a Chinese  razor,  and  made  three  deep  cuts  in  his  abdo- 
men. Some  of  his  friends  afterwards  sewed  up  the  wound 
with  cotton  thread.  Six  days  later  the  man  had  another  acces- 
sion of  ch'i,  and  ripped  open  the  wound.  On  each  occasion 
he  was  afterwards  unable  to  remember  what  he  had  done. 


SOCIAL  TYPHOONS 


219 


From  these  fearful  injuries  he  nevertheless  recovered,  to  such 
an  extent  that  six  months  later  he  was  able  to  walk  several 
hundred  miles  to  a foreign  hospital  for  treatment.  The  ab- 
dominal wound  had  partly  closed,  leaving  only  a small  fistula, 
but  the  normal  action  of  the  bowels  was  interrupted.  He  is  a 
striking  exemplification  of  that  physical  vitality  to  which  atten- 
tion has  been  already  directed. 

The  habit  of  yelling  to  enforce  command  or  criticism  is  in- 
grained in  the  Chinese,  and  -appears  to  be  ineradicable.  To 
expostulate  with  another  in  an  ordinary  tone  of  voice,  paus- 
ing at  times  to  listen  to  his  opponent’s  reply,  is  to  a Chinese 
almost  a psychological  impossibility.  He  must  shout,  he  must 
interrupt,  by  a necessity  as  inexorable  as  that  which  leads  a 
dog  labouring  under  great  excitement  to  bark. 

The  Chinese  have  carried  to  a degree  of  perfection  known 
only  among  Orientals  the  art  of  reviling.  The  moment  that  a 
quarrel  begins  abusive  words  of  this  sort  are  poured  forth  in  a 
filthy  stream  to  which  nothing  in  the  English  language  offers 
any  parallel,  and  with  a virulence  and  pertinacity  suggestive 
of  the  fish-women  of  Billingsgate.  The  merest  contact  is 
often  sufficient  to  elicit  a torrent  of  this  invective,  as  a touch 
induces  the  electric  spark,  and  it  is  in  constant  and  almost 
universal  use  by  all  classes  and  both  sexes,  always  and  every- 
where. It  is  a common  complaint  that  women  use  even  viler 
language  than  men,  and  that  they  continue  it  longer,  justify- 
ing the  aphorism  that  what  Chinese  women  have  lost  in  the 
compression  of  their  feet  seems  to  have  been  made  up  in  the 
volubility  of  their  tongues.  Children  just  beginning  to  talk 
learn  this  abusive  dialect  from  their  parents  and  often  em- 
ploy it  towards  them,  which  is  regarded  as  extremely  amusing. 
The  use  of  this  language  has  become  to  the  Chinese  a kind  of 
second  nature.  It  is  confined  to  no  class  of  society.  Literary 
graduates  and  officials  of  all  ranks  up  to  the  very  highest, 
when  provoked,  employ  it  as  freely  as  their  coolies.  It  is 


220 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


even  used  by  common  people  on  the  street  as  a kind  of  ban- 
tering salutation,  and  as  such  is  returned  in  kind. 

Occidental  curses  are  sometimes  not  loud  but  deep,  but 
Chinese  maledictions  are  nothing  if  not  loud.  An  English 
oath  is  a winged  bullet ; Chinese  abuse  is  a ball  of  filth. 
Much  of  this  abusive  language  is  regarded  as  a sort  of  spell 
or  curse.  A man  who  has  had  the  heads  removed  from  his 
field  of  millet  stands  at  the  entrance  of  the  alley  which  leads 
to  his  dwelling,  and  pours  forth  volleys  of  abuse  upon  the 
unknown  (though  often  not  unsuspected)  offender.  This 
proceeding  is  regarded  as  having  a double  value : first,  as  a 
means  of  notifying  the  public  of  his  loss  and  of  his  consequent 
fury,  thus  freeing  his  mind  ; and  second,  as  a prophylactic, 
tending  to  secure  him  against  the  repetition  of  the  offence. 
The  culprit  is  (theoretically)  in  ambush,  listening  with  some- 
thing like  awe  to  the  frightful  imprecations  levelled  at  him. 
He  cannot,  of  course,  be  sure  that  he  is  not  detected,  which  is 
often  the  case.  Perhaps  the  loser  knows  perfectly  well  who 
it  was  who  stole  his  goods,  but  contents  himself  with  a public 
reviling,  as  a formal  notice  that  the  culprit  is  either  known  or 
suspected,  and  will  do  well  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  his  act. 
If  provoked  too  far  the  loser  will,  it  is  thus  tacitly  proclaimed, 
retaliate.  This  is  the  Chinese  theory  of  public  reviling.  They 
frankly  admit  that  it  not  only  does  not  stop  theft,  but  that 
it  has  no  necessary  tendency  to  prevent  its  repetition,  since 
among  a large  population  the  thief  or  other  offender  is  by  no 
means  certain  to  know  that  he  has  been  reviled. 

The  practice  of  “ reviling  the  street  ” is  often  indulged  in 
by  women,  who  mount  the  flat  roof  of  the  house  and  shriek 
away  for  hours  at  a time,  or  until  their  voices  fail.  A respect- 
able family  would  not  allow  such  a performance  if  they  could 
prevent  it,  but  in  China,  as  elsewhere,  an  enraged  woman  is  a 
being  difficult  to  restrain.  Abuse  delivered  in  this  way,  on 
general  principles,  attracts  little  or  no  attention,  and  one  some- 


SOCIAL  TYPHOONS 


221 


times  comes  upon  a man  at  the  head  of  an  alley,  or  a woman 
on  the  roof,  screeching  themselves  red  in  the  face,  with  not  a 
single  auditor  in  sight.  If  the  day  is  a hot  one  the  reviler 
bawls  as  long  as  he  (or  she)  has  breath,  then  proceeds  to  re- 
fresh himself  by  a season  of  fanning,  and  afterwards  returns 
to  the  attack  with  renewed  fury. 

If  a Chinese  quarrel  be  at  all  violent,  it  is  next  to  impossi- 
ble that  it  should  be  concluded  without  more  or  less  personal 
vilification.  English  travellers  in  the  south  of  Europe  have 
noted  the  astonishment  of  the  Latin  races  at  the  invariable 
habit  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  British  Isles  to  strike  out  from 
the  shoulder  if  he  gets  into  a fight.  The  Chinese,  like  the 
Italians,  have  seldom  learned  to  box,  or  if  they  have  learned 
it  is  not  scientific  boxing.  The  first  and  chief  resource  of 
Chinese  when  matters  come  to  extremities  is  to  seize  the  cue 
of  their  opponent,  endeavouring  to  pull  out  as  much  hair  as 
possible.  In  nine  fights  out  of  ten,  where  only  two  parties 
are  concerned,  and  where  neither  party  can  lay  hold  of  any 
weapon,  the  “ fight  ” resolves  itself  simply  into  a hair-pulling 
match. 

A Chinese  quarrel  is  also  a reviling  match,  low  language 
and  high  words.  But  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  the  partici- 
pants in  Chinese  fights  is  seriously  disabled  in  other  respects 
than  that  by  incessant  bawling  they  have  become  hoarse.  We 
should  be  surprised  to  hear  that  any  one  ever  saw  a Chinese 
crowd  egg  on  combatants.  What  we  have  seen,  what  we  al- 
ways expect  to  see,  is  the  instant  and  spontaneous  appearance 
on  the  scene  of  the  peace-maker.  He  is  double,  perhaps 
quadruple.  Each  of  the  peace-makers  seizes  a roaring  bellig- 
erent, and  tranquillises  him  with  good  advice.  As  soon  as  he 
finds  himself  safely  in  charge  of  the  peace-maker,  the  principal 
in  the  fight  becomes  doubly  furious.  He  has  judiciously  post- 
poned losing  control  of  himself  until  there  is  some  one  else 
ready  to  take  that  control,  and  then  he  gives  way  to  spasms  of 


222 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


apparent  fury,  unquestionably  innocuous  both  to  himself  and 
to  others.  In  his  most  furious  moments  a Chinese  is  ame- 
nable to  “ reason,”  for  which  he  has  not  only  a theoretical,  but 
a very  practical,  respect.  Who  ever  saw  a belligerent  turn 
and  rend  the  officious  peace-maker,  who  is  holding  him  from 
flying  at  his  foe  ? This  is  the  crucial  point  in  the  struggle. 
Even  in  his  fury  the  Chinese  recognises  the  desirableness  of 
peace — in  the  abstract — only  he  thinks  that  in  his  concrete 
case  peace  is  inapplicable.  The  peace-maker  judges  differ- 
ently, and  nearly  always  drags  away  the  bellicose  reviler,  who 
yells  back  to  his  opponent  malignant  defiance  as  he  goes. 

It  is  a curious  feature  of  the  universal  Chinese  practice  of 
reviling  that  it  is  not  considered  “ good  form  ” in  hurling  this 
abuse  at  another  to  touch  upon  his  actual  faults,  but  rather  to 
impute  to  him  the  most  ignoble  origin,  and  to  heap  contempt 
upon  his  ancestors.  The  employment  of  this  language  towards 
another  is  justly  regarded  as  a great  indignity  and  a grave 
offence,  but  the  point  of  the  insult  consists  not  in  the  use  of 
such  language  in  the  presence  of  another,  nor  even  principally 
in  its  application  to  him,  but  in  the  loss  of  “ face  ” which  this 
application  of  such  terms  implies.  The  proper  apology  for 
the  commission  of  this  offence  is  not  that  the  person  who  has 
been  guilty  of  it  has  demeaned  himself,  and  has  done  a dis- 
graceful act,  but  that  he  was  wrong  in  applying  those  terms  to 
that  person  at  that  time. 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  Chinese  that  they  have  not  the  habit 
of  carrying  weapons  about  them,  for  if  they  had  revolvers  or 
swords,  like  the  former  samurai  class  of  Japan,  it  would  not 
be  possible  to  predict  the  amount  of  mischief  which  the  daily 
evolution  of  ch'i  would  produce. 

When  any  Chinese  is  once  seized  of  the  idea  that  he 
has  been  deeply  wronged,  there  is  no  power  on  earth  which 
can  prevent  the  sudden  and  often  utterly  ungovernable  de- 
velopment of  a certain  amount  of  ch‘i,  or  rather  of  a very  un- 


SOCIAL  TYPHOONS 


223 


certain  amount  of  it.  We  have  heard  of  a man  who  applied 
for  baptism  to  an  old  and  experienced  missionary  and  was 
very  properly  refused,  whereupon  he  got  a knife  and  threatened 
to  attack  the  missionary  to  prove  by  ordeal  of  battle  the  claim 
to  the  rite  of  initiation.  Happily  this  method  of  taking  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  by  violence  does  not  commend  itself  to 
most  novitiates,  but  the  underlying  principle  is  one  that  is 
constantly  acted  upon  in  all  varieties  of  Chinese  social  life. 
An  old  woman  who  will  not  take  “ no  ” for  an  answer  asks  for 
financial  assistance,  and  throws  herself  on  the  ground  in  front 
of  your  carter’s  mules.  If  she  is  run  over  so  much  the  better 
for  her,  for  she  is  thus  reasonably  sure  of  a support  for  an  in- 
definite period.  An  old  vixen  living  in  the  same  village  as  the 
writer  was  constantly  threatening  to  commit  suicide,  but  though 
all  her  neighbours  were  willing  to  lend  their  aid,  she  never 
seemed  to  accomplish  her  purpose.  At  last  she  threw  herself 
into  one  of  the  village  mudholes  with  intent  to  drown,  but 
found  to  her  disgust  that  the  water  was  only  up  to  her  neck. 
She  lacked  that  versatility  of  invention  which  would  have  en- 
abled her  to  put  her  head  under  water  and  hold  it  there,  but 
contented  herself  with  reviling  the  whole  village  at  the  top  of 
her  voice  for  her  contretemps.  The  next  time  she  was  more 
successful. 

If  a wrong  has  been  committed  for  which  there  is  no  legal 
redress,  such  as  abuse  of  a married  daughter  beyond  the  point 
which  custom  warrants,  a party  of  the  injured  friends  will  visit 
the  house  of  the  mother-in-law,  and  if  they  are  resisted,  will 
engage  in  a pitched  battle.  If  they  are  not  resisted,  and  the 
offending  persons  have  fled,  the  assailants  will  proceed  to 
smash  all  the  crockery  in  the  house,  the  mirrors,  the  water-jars, 
and  whatever  else  is  frangible,  and  having  thus  allowed  their 
ch'i  to  escape,  they  depart.  If  their  coming  is  known  in  ad- 
vance, the  very  first  step  is  to  remove  all  these  articles  to  the 
house  of  some  neighbour.  One  of  the  Chinese  newspapers 


224 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


mentioned  a case  which  occurred  in  Peking,  where  a man  had 
arranged  for  a wedding  with  a beautiful  woman,  who  turned 
out  to  be  ugly,  bald-headed,  and  elderly.  The  disappointed 
bridegroom  became  greatly  enraged,  struck  the  go-betweens, 
reviled  the  whole  company,  and  smashed  the  bride’s  wedding- 
outfit.  Any  Chinese  would  have  acted  in  the  same  way,  if  he 
was  in  such  relations  to  his  environment  that  he  dared  to  do 
so.*  It  is  after  the  preliminary  paroxysms  of  ch'i  have  had 
opportunity  to  subside,  that  the  work  of  the  “ peace-talker  ” 
— that  useful  factor  in  Chinese  social  life — is  accomplished. 
Sometimes  these  most  essential  individuals  are  so  deeply  im- 
pressed with  the  necessity  of  peace,  that  even  when  the  matter 
is  not  one  which  concerns  them  personally,  they  are  willing  to 
go  from  one  to  the  other  making  prostrations  now  to  this  side 
and  now  to  that,  in  the  interests  of  harmony. 

Whenever  social  storms  prove  incapable  of  adjustment  by 
the  ordinary  processes — in  other  words,  when  there  is  such  a 
preponderance  of  ch'i  that  it  cannot  be  dispersed  without  an 
explosion — there  is  the  beginning  of  the  lawsuit,  a term  in 
China  of  fateful  significance.  The  same  blind  rage  which 
leads  a person  to  lose  all  control  of  himself  in  a quarrel  leads 
him,  after  the  first  stages  of  the  outbreak  have  passed,  to  de- 
termine to  take  the  offender  before  a magistrate,  in  order  “ to 
have  the  law  on  him.”  This  proceeding  in  Western  lands  is 
generally  injudicious,  but  in  China  it  is  sheer  madness.  There 
is  sound  sense  in  the  proverb  which  praises  the  man  who  will 
suffer  himself  to  be  imposed  upon  to  the  death  before  he  will 


* It  was  reported  in  Peking  that  the  present  Emperor  was  not  pleased 
with  the  choice  of  a wife  which  was  made  for  him.  lie  had  been  so  often 
crossed  in  his  wishes  by  the  Empress  Dowager  that  any  selection  which 
was  made  by  her  would  have  been  distasteful.  It  was  also  whispered 
that  scenes  occurred  in  the  palace  not  remotely  unlike  those  mentioned  as 
taking  place  at  the  wedding  of  one  of  his  subjects.  “When  those  above 
act,  those  below  will  imitate.” 


SOCIAL  TYPHOONS 


225 


go  to  the  law,  which  will  often  be  worse  than  death.  We 
smile  at  the  fury  of  the  immigrant  whose  dog  had  been  shot 
by  a neighbour,  and  who  was  remonstrated  with  by  a friend 
when  the  resolution  to  go  to  law  was  declared.  “ What  was 
the  value  of  the  dog?  ” “ Ze  dog  vas  vort  nottings,  but  since 

he  vas  so  mean  as  to  kill  him,  he  shall  pay  ze  full  value  of 
him.”  In  an  Occidental  land  such  a suit  would  be  dismissed 
with  costs,  and  there  it  would  end.  In  China  it  might  go  on 
to  the  ruin  of  both  parties,  and  be  a cause  of  feud  for  gen- 
erations yet  to  come.  But  generally  speaking,  every  Chinese 
lawsuit  calls  out  upon  each  side  the  omnipresent  peace-talker, 
whose  services  are  invaluable.  Millions  of  lawsuits  are  thus 
strangled  before  they  reach  the  fatal  stage.  In  a village  num- 
bering a thousand  families,  the  writer  was  informed  that  for 
more  than  a generation  there  had  not  been  a single  lawsuit, 
owing  to  the  restraining  influence  of  a leading  man  who  had 
a position  in  the  yamen  of  the  District  Magistrate. 

A social  machinery  so  complicated  as  that  of  China  must 
often  creak,  and  sometimes  under  extreme  pressure  bend,  yet  it 
seldom  actually  breaks  beneath  the  strain,  for,  like  the  human 
body,  the  Chinese  body  politic  is  provided,  as  we  see,  with  little 
sacs  of  lubricating  fluid,  distilled,  a drop  at  a time,  exactly 
when  and  where  they  are  most  needed.  It  is  the  peaceable 
quality  of  the  Chinese  which  makes  him  a valuable  social  unit. 
He  loves  order  and  respects  law,  even  when  it  is  not  in  itself 
respectable.  Of  all  Asiatic  peoples,  the  Chinese  are  probably 
most  easily  governed,  when  governed  on  lines  to  which  they 
are  accustomed.  Doubtless  there  are  other  forms  of  civil- 
isation which  are  in  many  or  in  most  respects  superior  to 
that  of  China,  but  perhaps  there  are  few  which  would  sustain 
the  tension  to  which  Chinese  society  has  for  ages  been  sub- 
ject, and  it  may  be  that  there  is  none  better  entitled  to  claim 
the  benediction  once  pronounced  upon  the  peace-makers. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LAW. 

ONE  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  Chinese  society  is 
that  which  is  epitomised  in  the  word  “responsibility,” 
a word  which  carries  with  it  a significance  and  embraces  a 
wealth  of  meaning  to  which  Western  lands  are  total  strangers. 
In  those  lands,  as  we  well  know,  the  individual  is  the  unit  and 
the  nation  is  a large  collection  of  individuals.  In  China  the 
unit  of  social  life  is  found  in  the  family,  the  village,  or  the 
clan,  and  these  are  often  convertible  terms.  Thousands  of 
Chinese  villages  comprise  exclusively  persons  having  the  same 
surname  and  the  same  ancestors.  The  inhabitants  have  lived 
in  the  same  spot  ever  since  they  began  to  live  at  all,  and  trace 
an  unbroken  descent  for  many  hundred  years  back  to  the  last 
great  political  upheaval,  such  as  the  overthrow  of  the  Ming 
Dynasty  or  its  establishment.  In  such  a village  there  can  be 
no  relationship  laterally  more  distant  than  “ cousin,”  and  every 
male  member  of  an  older  generation  is  either  a father,  an 
uncle,  or  some  kind  of  a “ grandfather.”  Sometimes  eleven 
generations  are  represented  in  the  same  small  hamlet.  This 
does  not  imply,  as  might  be  supposed,  extreme  old  age  on  the 
part  of  any  representative  of  the  older  generations.  The 
Chinese  marry  young,  marry  repeatedly,  often  late  in  life,  and 
constantly  adopt  children.  The  result  is  such  a tangle  among 
relatives  that  without  special  inquiry  and  minute  attention  to 
the  particular  characters  which  are  employed  in  writing  the 
names  of  all  who  belong  to  the  same  “ generation,”  it  is  im- 

226 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LA IV  227 


possible  to  determine  who  constitute  “ the  rising  generation,” 
and  who  form  the  generation  which  rose  long  ago.  An  old 
man  nearly  seventy  years  of  age  affirms  that  a young  man  of 
thirty  is  his  “ grandfather.”  All  the  numerous  “ cousins  ” of 
the  same  generation  are  termed  “brothers,”  and  if  the  per- 
plexed foreigner  insists  upon  accuracy,  and  inquires  whether 
they  are  “ own  brothers,”  he  will  not  infrequently  be  enlight- 
ened with  the  reply  that  they  are  “ own  brother-cousins.”  The 
writer  once  proposed  a question  of  this  sort,  and  after  some 
little  hesitation  the  person  addressed  replied,  “ Why,  yes,  you 
might  call  them  own  brothers.” 

These  items  are  but  particulars  under  the  general  head  of 
the  social  solidarity  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  this  solidarity  which 
forms  the  substratum  upon  which  rests  Chinese  responsibility. 
The  father  is  responsible  for  his  son,  not  merely  until  the  latter 
attains  to  “years  of  discretion,”  but  as  long  as  life  lasts,  and 
the  son  is  responsible  for  his  father’s  debts.  The  elder  brother 
has  a definite  responsibility  for  the  younger  brother,  and  the 
“ head  of  the  family  ” — usually  the  oldest  representative  of  the 
oldest  generation — has  his  responsibility  for  the  whole  family 
or  clan.  What  these  responsibilities  actually  are  will  depend, 
however,  upon  circumstances. 

Customs  vary  widely,  and  the  “personal  equation”  is  a 
most  important  factor,  of  which  mere  theory  takes  no  ac- 
count. Thus  in  a large  and  influential  family,  embracing 
many  literary  men,  some  of  whom  are  local  magnates  and 
perhaps  graduates,  the  “ head  of  the  clan  ” may  be  an  addle- 
headed old  man  who  can  neither  read  nor  write,  and  who  has 
never  in  his  life  been  ten  miles  from  home. 

The  influence  of  an  elder  brother  over  a younger,  or  indeed 
of  any  older  member  over  a younger  member  of  the  same 
family,  is  of  the  most  direct  and  positive  sort,  and  is  entirely 
irreconcilable  with  what  we  mean  by  personal  liberty.  The 
younger  brother  is  employed  as  a servant  and  would  like  to 


228 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


give  up  his  place,  but  his  elder  brother  will  not  let  him  do  so. 
The  younger  brother  wishes  to  buy  a winter  garment,  but  his 
elder  brother  thinks  the  cost  is  too  great,  and  will  not  allow 
him  to  incur  the  expense.  Even  while  these  remarks  are 
committed  to  paper,  a case  is  reported  in  which  a Chinese  has 
a number  of  rare  old  coins,  which  a foreigner  desires  to  pur- 
chase. Lest  the  owner  should  refuse  to  sell — as  is  the  Chinese 
way  when  one  happens  to  have  what  another  wants — the 
middleman  who  made  the  discovery  proposes  to  the  foreigner 
that  he  should  send  to  the  uncle  of  the  owner  of  the  coins  a 
present  of  foreign  candy  and  other  trifles,  by  which  oblique 
means  such  pressure  will  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  owner 
of  the  coins  that  he  will  be  obliged  to  give  them  up! 

There  is  a burlesque  tale  which  relates  that  a traveller  in  a 
Western  land  once  came  upon  a very  old  man  with  a long 
white  beard,  who  was  crying  bitterly.  Struck  with  the  singu- 
larity of  this  spectacle,  the  stranger  halted  and  asked  the  old 
man  what  he  was  crying  about,  and  was  surprised  to  be  told 
that  it  was  because  his  father  had  just  whipped  him ! “ Where 

is  your  father  ? ” “ Over  there,”  was  the  reply.  Riding  in 

the  direction  named,  the  traveller  found  a much  older  man, 
with  a beard  much  longer  and  whiter  than  the  other.  “ Is 
that  your  son?  ” asked  the  traveller.  “ Yes,  it  is.”  “ Did  you 
whip  him?”  “Yes,  I did.”  “Why?”  "Because  he  was 
saucy  to  his  grandfather,  and  if  he  does  it  again  I will  whip 
him  some  more!”  Translated  into  the  conditions  of  Chinese 
life  the  burlesque  disappears. 

Next  in  order  to  the  responsibility  of  members  of  a family 
for  one  another  comes  the  mutual  responsibility  of  neighbours 
for  neighbours.  Whether  these  “ neighbours  ” are  or  are  not 
related  makes  no  difference  in  their  responsibility,  which  de- 
pends solely  upon  proximity.  This  responsibility  is  based 
upon  the  theory  that  virtue  and  vice  are  contagious.  Good 
neighbours  will  make  good  neighbours,  and  bad  neighbours 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LA IV  229 


will  make  others  like  them.  The  mother  of  Mencius  removed 
three  times  in  order  to  reach  a desirable  neighbourhood.  To 
an  Occidental,  fresh  from  the  republican  ideas  which  dominate 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  it  seems  a matter  of  little  or  no  consequence 
who  his  neighbours  are,  and  if  he  be  a resident  of  a city  he 
may  occupy  a dwelling  for  a year  in  ignorance  even  of  the 
name  of  the  family  next  door.  But  in  China  it  is  otherwise. 
If  a crime  takes  place  the  neighbours  are  held  guilty  of  some- 
thing analogous  to  what  English  law  calls  “ misprision  of 
treason,”  in  that  when  they  knew  of  a criminal  intention  they 
did  not  report  it.  It  is  vain  to  reply  “ I did  not  know.”  You 
are  a “ neighbour,”  and  therefore  you  must  have  known. 

The  proceedings  which  are  taken  when  the  crime  of  killing 
a parent  has  been  committed,  furnish  a striking  illustration  of 
the  Chinese  theory  of  responsibility.  As  has  been  already 
mentioned  in  speaking  of  filial  piety,  in  such  instances  the 
criminal  is  often  alleged  to  be  insane,  as  indeed  one  must  be 
who  voluntarily  subjects  himself  to  death  by  the  slicing  process 
when  he  might  escape  it  by  suicide.  In  a memorial  published 
in  the  Peking  Gazette  a few  years  since,  the  Governor  of  one 
of  the  central  provinces  reported  in  regard  to  a case  of  par- 
ricide that  he  had  had  the  houses  of  all  the  neighbours  pulled 
down,  on  the  ground  of  their  gross  dereliction  of  duty  in  not 
exerting  a good  moral  and  reformatory  influence  over  the 
criminal ! Such  a proceeding  would  probably  strike  an  average 
Chinese  as  eminently  reasonable.  In  some  instances  when 
this  crime  has  occurred  in  a district,  in  addition  to  all  the 
punishments  of  persons,  the  city  wall  itself  is  pulled  down  in 
parts,  or  modified  in  shape,  a round  corner  substituted  for  a 
square  one,  or  a gate  removed  to  a new  situation,  or  even 
closed  up  altogether.  If  the  crime  should  be  repeated  several 
times  in  the  same  district,  it  is  said  that  the  whole  city  would 
be  razed  to  the  ground,  and  a new  one  founded  elsewhere,  but 
of  this  we  have  met  with  no  certain  examples. 


230 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


Next  above  the  neighbours  comes  the  village  constable  oi 
bailiff,  whose  functions  are  of  a most  miscellaneous  nature, 
sometimes  confined  to  a single  village,  and  sometimes  extend- 
ing to  many.  In  either  case  he  is  the  medium  of  communi- 
cation between  the  local  magistrate  and  the  people,  and  is 
always  liable  to  get  into  trouble  from  any  one  of  innumerable 
causes,  and  may  be  beaten  to  a jelly  by  a captious  official  for 
not  reporting  what  he  could  not  possibly  have  known. 

At  a vast  elevation  above  the  village  constables  stand  the 
District  Magistrates,  who,  so  far  as  the  people  are  concerned, 
are  by  far  the  most  important  officers  in  China.  As  regards 
the  people  below  them  they  are  tigers.  As  regards  the  officials 
above  them  they  are  mice.  A single  local  magistrate  combines 
functions  which  ought  to  be  distributed  among  at  least  six 
different  officers.  A man  who  is  at  once  the  civil  and  the 
criminal  judge,  the  sheriff,  the  coroner,  the  treasurer,  and  the 
tax-commissioner  for  a large  and  populous  district,  cannot  at- 
tend to  the  details  of  all  his  work.  This  vicious  agglomera- 
tion of  duties  in  one  office  renders  it  both  a physical  and  a 
moral  impossibility  that  these  duties  should  be  properly  dis- 
charged. Many  magistrates  have  no  interest  whatever  in  the 
business  which  they  despatch,  except  to  extract  from  it  all  that 
it  can  be  made  to  yield,  and,  from  the  nature  of  their  miscel- 
laneous and  incongruous  duties,  they  are  largely  dependent 
upon  their  secretaries  and  other  subordinates.  Having  so 
much  to  do,  even  with  the  best  intentions  these  officials  can- 
not fail  to  make  numerous  mistakes,  and  many  things  must  go 
wrong,  for  which  they  will  be  held  responsible.  The  District 
Magistrate,  like  all  Chinese  officials,  is  supposed  to  have  an 
exhaustive  acquaintance  with  everything  within  his  jurisdiction 
which  is  an  object  of  knowledge,  and  an  unlimited  capacity  to 
prevent  what  ought  to  be  prevented.  To  facilitate  this  knowl- 
edge and  that  of  the  local  constables,  each  city  and  village  is 
divided  into  compound  atoms  composed  of  ten  families  each. 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LA IV  231 


At  every  door  hangs  a placard  or  tablet  upon  which  is  inscribed 
the  name  of  the  head  of  the  family,  and  the  number  of  individ- 
uals which  it  comprises.  This  system  of  registration,  analogous 
to  the  old  Saxon  tithings  and  hundreds,  makes  it  easy  to  fix 
local  responsibility.  The  moment  a suspicious  stranger  ap- 
pears in  the  district  comprised  in  a tithing,  he  is  promptly 
reported  to  the  head  of  the  tithing  by  whoever  sees  him  first. 
By  the  head  of  the  tithing  he  is  immediately  reported  to  the 
local  constable,  and  by  the  local  constable  to  the  District 
Magistrate,  who  at  once  takes  steps  “rigorously  to  seize  and 
severely  to  punish.”  By  the  same  simple  process  all  local 
crimes,  not  due  to  “ suspicious-looking  strangers  ” but  to  per- 
manent residents,  are  instantly  detected  before  they  have 
hatched  into  overt  acts,  and  thus  the  pure  morals  of  the 
people  are  preserved  from  age  to  age. 

It  is  evident  that  such  regulations  as  these  can  be  efficient 
only  in  a state  of  society  where  fixity  of  residence  is  the  rule. 
It  is  also  evident  that  even  in  China,  where  the  most  extreme 
form  of  permanence  of  abode  is  found,  the  system  of  tithing 
is  to  a large  extent  a mere  legal  fiction.  Sometimes  a city, 
where  no  one  remembers  to  have  seen  them  before,  suddenly 
blossoms  out  with  ten-family  tablets  on  every  door-post,  which 
indicates  the  arrival  of  a District  Magistrate  who  intends  to 
enforce  the  regulations.  In  some  places  these  tablets  are  ob- 
servable in  the  winter  season  only,  for  this  is  the  time  when 
bad  characters  are  most  numerous  and  most  dangerous.  But 
so  far  as  our  knowledge  extends,  the  system  as  such  is  little 
more  than  a theoretical  reminiscence,  and  even  when  observed 
it  is  probably  merely  a form.  Practically,  it  is  not  generally 
observed,  and  in  some  provinces  at  least  one  may  travel  for  a 
thousand  miles,  and  for  months  together,  and  not  find  ten- 
family  tablets  posted  in  more  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  cities 
and  villages  along  the  route. 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing  that  the  Chinese  tithing 


2 32 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


system  is  intimately  connected  with  the  so-called  census.  If 
each  doorway  exhibits  an  accurate  list,  constantly  corrected, 
of  the  number  of  persons  in  each  family ; if  each  local  con- 
stable has  accurate  copies  of  the  lists  of  all  the  tithings  within 
his  territory ; if  each  District  Magistrate  has  at  his  disposal 
accurate  summaries  of  all  these  items — it  is  as  easy  to  secure  a 
complete  and  accurate  census  of  the  Empire  as  to  do  a long 
sum  in  addition,  for  the  whole  is  equal  to  the  aggregate  of  all 
its  parts.  But  these  are  large  i/s,  and,  as  a matter  of  fact, 
none  of  the  conditions  are  realised.  The  tablets  are  non- 
existent, and  when  the  local  magistrate  is  occasionally  called 
upon  for  the  totals  which  should  represent  them,  neither  he 
nor  the  numerous  constables  upon  whom  he  is  entirely  de- 
pendent has  the  least  interest  in  securing  accuracy,  which 
indeed  from  the  nature  of  the  case  is  difficult.  There  is  no 
“ squeeze  ” to  be  got  from  a census,  and  for  this  reason  alone  a 
really  accurate  Chinese  census  is  a mere  figment  of  the  imagi- 
nation. Even  in  the  most  enlightened  Western  lands  the  notion 
that  a census  means  taxation  appears  to  be  ineradicable,  but 
in  China  the  suspicion  which  it  excites  is  so  strong,  that  for 
this  reason  alone,  unless  the  tithing  system  were  carried  out 
with  uniform  faithfulness  in  all  places  and  at  all  times,  an  ac- 
curate enumeration  would  be  impossible. 

For  a local  magistrate  to  be  guilty  of  all  kinds  of  misde- 
meanours for  which  he  gets  into  no  trouble  whatever,  or  get- 
ting into  it,  escapes  scot-free  by  means  of  influential  friends 
or  by  a judicious  expenditure  of  silver,  and  yet  after  all  to  lose 
his  post  on  account  of  something  that  happened  within  his 
jurisdiction  but  which  he  could  not  have  prevented,  is  a con- 
stant occurrence. 

How  the  system  of  responsibility  operates  in  the  domain  of 
all  the  successive  grades  of  officials,  it  is  unnecessary  to  illus- 
trate in  detail.  Multiplied  examples  are  found  in  almost 
every  copy  of  the  translations  from  the  Peking  Gazette.  A 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  233 


case  was  mentioned  a few  years  ago,  where  a soldier  on  guard 
had  stolen  some  thirty  boxes  of  bullets  placed  in  his  care,  and 
sold  them  to  a tinner,  who  supposed  them  to  be  condemned 
and  surplus  stores.  The  soldier  was  beaten  one  hundred 
blows,  and  banished  to  the  frontiers  of  the  Empire  in  penal 
servitude.  A petty  officer  whose  duty  it  was  to  inspect  the 
stores  was  condemned  to  eighty  blows  and  dismissed  from 
the  service,  though  allowed  to  commute  his  punishment  for  a 
money  payment.  The  purchasers  of  the  material  were  consid- 
ered innocent  of  any  blame,  but  on  general  principles  were 
beaten  forty  blows  of  the  light  bamboo.  The  lieutenant  in 
charge  was  cashiered  in  order  to  be  put  upon  trial  for  his 
“ connivance  ” in  the  theft,  but  he  judiciously  disappeared. 
The  Board  to  which  the  memorial  was  addressed  was  requested 
to  determine  the  penalty  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  general  in 
command,  for  his  share  in  the  matter.  Thus  each  individual 
is  a link  in  the  chain  which  is  followed  up  to  the  very  end, 
and  no  link  can  escape  by  pleading  ignorance  or  inability  to 
prevent  the  crime. 

Still  more  characteristic  examples  of  Chinese  responsibility 
are  furnished  by  the  memorials  annually  appearing  in  the 
Peking  Gazette,  reporting  the  outbreak  of  some  irrepressible 
river.  In  the  case  of  a flood  in  the  Yung-ting  River  in  the 
province  of  Chihli  during  the  summer  of  1888,  the  waters 
came  down  from  the  mountains  with  the  velocity  of  a mill- 
race.  The  officials  seem  to  have  been  promptly  on  hand, 
and  to  have  risked  their  lives  in  struggling  to  do  what  was 
utterly  beyond  the  powers  of  man.  They  were  helpless  as 
ants  under  a rain-spout  during  a summer  torrent.  But  this 
did  not  prevent  Li  Hung-chang  from  requesting  that  they 
should  be  immediately  stripped  of  their  buttons,  or  deprived 
of  their  rank  without  being  removed  from  their  posts  (a  fa- 
vourite mode  of  expressing  Imperial  dissatisfaction),  and  the 
Governor-General  consistently  concludes  his  memorial  with 


234 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  usual  request  that  his  own  name  should  be  sent  to  the 
Board  of  Punishments  for  the  determination  of  a penalty  to 
be  inflicted  upon  him  for  his*  complicity  in  the  affair.  Similar 
floods  have  occurred  several  times  since,  and  upon  each  occa- 
sion a similar  memorial  has  been  presented.  The  Emperor 
always  instructs  the  proper  Board  to  “ take  note.”  In  like 
manner  the  failure  of  the  embankments  built  a few  years  ago 
to  bring  back  the  Yellow  River  into  its  old  channel  was  the 
signal  for  the  degradation  and  banishment  of  a great  num- 
ber of  officers,  from  the  Governor  of  the  province  of  Honan 
downwards. 

The  theory  of  responsibility  is  carried  upwards  with  un- 
flinching consistency  to  the  Son  of  Heaven  himself.  It  is  no 
unusual  thing  for  the  Emperor  in  published  edicts  to  confess 
to  Heaven  his  shortcomings,  taking  upon  himself  the  blame 
of  floods,  famines,  and  revolutionary  outbreaks,  for  which  he 
begs  Heaven’s  forgiveness.  His  responsibility  to  Heaven  is 
as  real  as  that  of  his  officers  to  himself.  If  the  Emperor 
loses  his  throne,  it  is  because  he  has  already  lost  “ Heaven’s 
decree,”  which  is  presumptively  transferred  to  whoever  can 
hold  the  Empire. 

That  aspect  of  the  Chinese  doctrine  of  responsibility  which 
is  the  most  repellent  to  Western  standards  of  thought,  is  found 
in  the  Oriental  practice  of  extinguishing  an  entire  family  for 
the  crime  of  one  of  its  members.  Many  instances  of  this  sort 
were  reported  in  connection  with  the  T‘aip‘ing  rebellion,  and 
more  recently  the  family  of  the  chieftain  Yakub  Beg,  who  led 
the  Mohammedan  rebellion  in  Turkestan,  furnished  another. 
These  atrocities  are  not,  however,  limited  to  cases  of  overt 
rebellion.  In  the  year  1873  “a  Chinese  was  accused  and 
convicted  of  having  broken  open  the  grave  of  a relative  of 
the  Imperial  family,  in  order  to  rob  the  coffin  of  certain  gold, 
silver,  and  jade  ornaments  which  had  been  buried  in  it.  The 
entire  family  of  the  criminal,  consisting  of  four  generations, 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LA IV  235 


from  a man  more  than  ninety  years  of  age  to  a female  infant 
only  a few  months  old,  was  exterminated.  Thus  eleven  per- 
sons suffered  death  for  the  offence  of  one.  And  there  was 
no  evidence  to  show  that  any  of  them  were  parties  to,  or  were 
even  aware  of,  his  crime.” 

The  Chinese  theory  and  practice  of  responsibility  has  been 
often  cited  as  one  of  the  causes  of  the  perpetuity  of  Chinese 
institutions.  It  forges  around  every  member  of  Chinese  soci- 
ety iron  fetters  from  which  it  is  impossible  that  he  should 
break  loose.  It  constantly  violates  every  principle  of  justice 
by  punishing  all  grades  of  officers,  as  well  as  private  individ- 
uals, for  occurrences  in  which  they  had  no  part,  and  of  which, 
as  in  the  example  just  cited,  they  were  not  improbably  utterly 
ignorant.  It  is  the  direct  cause  of  deliberate  and  systematic 
falsification  in  all  ranks  of  officials,  from  the  very  lowest  to 
the  very  highest.  If  an  officer  is  responsible  for  the  existence 
of  crimes  which  he  does  not  find  it  easy  to  control,  or  of  which 
he  is  ignorant  till  it  is  too  late  to  prevent  them,  he  will  inevi- 
tably conceal  the  facts  so  as  to  screen  himself.  This  is  what 
constantly  happens  in  all  departments  of  the  government,  to 
the  complete  subversion  of  justice,  for  it  is  not  in  human  na- 
ture to  give  truthful  reports  of  events  when,  in  consequence 
of  such  reports,  the  person  who  makes  them  may  be  severely 
and  unjustly  punished.  The  abuse  of  this  principle  alone 
would  suffice  to  account  for  a large  part  of  the  maladminis- 
tration of  justice  in  China,  to  which  our  attention  is  so  often 
called. 

An  additional  evil  connected  with  the  official  system  has 
been  noticed  by  every  writer  on  China.  It  is  the  absence  of 
independent  salaries  for  the  officers,  whose  allowances  are  so 
absurdly  small  that  often  they  would  not  pay  the  expenses  of 
the  yamen  for  a day.  Besides  this,  the  officials  are  subject  to 
so  many  forfeitures  that  it  is  said  that  they  rarely  draw  their 
nominal  allowances  at  all,  as  it  would  be  necessary  to  pay 


236 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


them  all  back  again  in  fines.  The  absolute  necessity  for  levy- 
ing squeezes  and  taking  bribes  arises  from  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  other  way  by  which  a magistrate  can  exist. 

Still,  while  we  are  impressed  with  flagrant  violations  of  jus- 
tice which  the  Chinese  theory  of  responsibility  involves,  it  is 
impossible  to  be  blind  to  its  excellences. 

In  Western  lands,  where  every  one  is  supposed  to  be  inno- 
cent until  he  is  proved  to  be  guilty,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  fix  responsibility  upon  any  particular  person.  A bridge 
breaks  down  with  a heavy  train  of  cars  loaded  with  passen- 
gers, and  an  investigation  fails  to  find  any  one  in  fault.  A 
lofty  building  falls  and  crushes  scores  of  people,  and  while  the 
architect  is  criticised,  he  shows  that  he  did  the  best  he  could 
with  the  means  at  his  disposal,  and  no  one  ever  hears  of  his 
being  punished.  If  an  ironclad  capsize,  or  a military  cam- 
paign is  ruined  because  the  proper  preparations  were  not 
made,  or  not  made  in  time,  eloquent  speeches  set  forth  the 
defects  of  the  system  which  renders  such  events  possible,  but 
no  one  is  punished.  The  Chinese  are  far  behind  us  in  their 
conceptions  of  public  justice,  but  might  we  not  wisely  learn 
again  from  them  the  ancient  lesson  that  every  one  should  be 
held  rigidly  responsible  for  his  own  acts,  in  order  to  the  secu- 
rity of  the  body  politic? 

The  relation  of  the  Chinese  theory  of  responsibility  to  for- 
eigners in  China  is  one  of  great  importance.  The  “ Boy,” 
into  whose  hands  everything  is  committed,  and  who  must 
produce  every  spoon,  fork,  or  curio ; the  steward,  who  takes 
general  charge  of  your  affairs,  suffering  no  one  but  himself  to 
cheat  you ; the  compradore,  who  wields  vast  powers  but  who 
is  individually  responsible  for  every  piece  of  property  and  for 
every  one  of  hundreds  of  coolies — these  types  of  character  we 
still  have  with  us,  and  shall  always  have,  as  long  as  we  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  Chinese.  Innkeepers  in  China  are 
not  noted  for  flagrant  virtues  of  any  kind,  especially  for  con- 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LAIV  237 


sideration  towards  foreign  travellers.  Yet  we  have  known  of 
a Chinese  innkeeper  who  ran  half  a mile  after  a foreigner, 
bringing  an  empty  sardine-tin  which  he  supposed  to  be  a for- 
gotten valuable.  He  knew  that  he  was  responsible,  unlike 
American  hotel-keepers,  who  coolly  notify  their  guests  that 
“ the  proprietor  is  not  responsible  for  boots  left  in  the  hall  to 
be  blacked.” 

Responsibility  for  the  character,  behaviour,  and  debts  of 
those  whom  they  recommend  or  introduce,  is  a social  obliga- 
tion of  recognised  force,  and  one  which  it  behoves  foreigners 
dealing  with  Chinese  to  emphasise.  The  fact  that  a headman, 
whatever  his  position,  is  “responsible”  for  any  and  every  act 
of  omission  or  commission  of  all  his  subordinates,  exerts  over 
the  whole  series  of  links  in  the  chain  a peculiar  influence, 
which  has  been  instinctively  appreciated  by  foreigners  in  all 
the  long  history  of  their  dealings  with  Chinese.  There  is  a 
tradition  of  a head  compradore  in  a bank,  who  in  the  “ more 
former  days  ” was  called  to  account  because  the  “ Boy  ” had 
allowed  a mosquito  to  insinuate  itself  within  the  mosquito-net 
of  the  bank  manager!  If  the  Chinese  perceive  that  a for- 
eigner is  ignorant  of  the  responsibility  of  his  employes,  or  dis- 
regards it,  it  will  not  take  them  long  to  act  upon  this  discovery 
in  extremely  disagreeable  ways. 

One  of  the  many  admirable  qualities  of  the  Chinese  is  their 
innate  respect  for  law.  Whether  this  element  in  their  charac- 
ter is  the  effect  of  their  institutions,  or  the  cause  of  them,  we 
do  not  know.  But  what  we  do  know  is  that  the  Chinese  are 
by  nature  and  by  education  a law-abiding  people.  Reference 
has  been  already  made  to  this  trait  in  speaking  of  the  national 
virtue  of  patience,  but  it  deserves  special  notice  in  connec- 
tion with  Chinese  theories  of  mutual  responsibility.  In  China 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  is  directly  responsible  to  some 
one  else,  and  of  this  important  fact  no  one  for  a moment 
loses  sight.  Though  one  should  “ go  far  and  fly  high  ” he 


238 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


cannot  escape,  and  this  he  well  knows.  Even  if  he  should 
himself  escape,  his  family  cannot  escape.  The  certainty  of 
this  does  not  indeed  make  a bad  man  good,  but  it  frequently 
prevents  him  from  becoming  tenfold  worse. 

It  is  an  illustration  of  Chinese  respect  for  law,  and  all  that 
appertains  thereto,  that  it  often  happens  that  men  of  literary 
rank  are  so  terrified  in  the  presence  of  a District  Magistrate 
that  they  dare  not  open  their  mouths  unless  compelled  to  do 
so,  although  the  case  may  not  in  any  way  concern  themselves. 
We  have  indeed  known  of  one  instance  where  a man  of  this 
class  appeared  to  be  thrown  into  a condition  resembling  epi- 
lepsy by  sheer  fright  in  giving  evidence.  He  was  taken  home 
in  a fit,  and  soon  after  died. 

Contrast  the  Chinese  inherent  respect  for  law  with  the 
spirit  often  manifested  where  republican  institutions  flourish 
most,  and  manifested,  it  must  be  said,  by  those  whose  antece- 
dents would  least  lead  us  to  expect  it.  College  laws,  munic- 
ipal ordinances,  state  and  national  enactments,  are  quietly 
defied,  as  if  the  assertion  of  personal  liberty  were  one  of  the 
greatest  needs,  instead  of  one  of  the  principal  dangers  of  the 
time.  It  is  rightly  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  serious  indict- 
ments against  the  transaction  of  Chinese  public  business  of  all 
kinds,  that  every  one  not  only  connives  at  acts  of  dishonesty 
which  it  is  his  duty  to  prevent  and  to  expose,  but  that  such  is 
the  constitution  of  public  and  private  society  that  every  one 
must  connive  at  such  acts.  But  is  it  less  disgraceful  that  in 
Christian  countries  men  of  education  and  refinement,  as  well 
as  the  uncultivated,  quietly  ignore  or  deliberately  disregard 
the  laws  of  the  land  as  if  by  common  consent,  and  as  if  it 
were  now  a well-ascertained  fact  that  a law  is  more  honoured 
in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance  ? How  shall  we  explain 
or  defend  the  existence  upon  our  statute-books  of  multitu- 
dinous laws  which  are  neither  repealed  nor  enforced — laws 
which  by  their  anomalous  non-existent  existence  tend  to  bring 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LA IV  239 


all  legislation  into  a common  contempt  ? By  what  means  shall 
we  explain  the  alarming  increase  of  crime  in  many  Western 
lands  during  the  last  thirty  years?  How  shall  we  explain  that 
conspicuous  indifference  to  the  sacredness  of  human  life  which 
is  unquestionably  a characteristic  of  some  Western  lands?  It 
is  vain  to  dogmatise  in  regard  to  matters  which  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  case  are  beyond  the  reach  of  statistics.  Still  we 
must  confess  to  a decided  conviction  that  human  life  is  safer 
in  a Chinese  city  than  in  an  American  city — safer  in  Peking 
than  in  New  York.  We  believe  it  to  be  safer  for  a foreigner 
to  traverse  the  interior  of  China  than  for  a Chinese  to  traverse 
the  interior  of  the  United  States.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Chinese  as  a whole  are  quite  as  ignorant  as  any  body 
of  immigrants  in  the  United  States,  and  not  less  prejudiced. 
They  are,  as  we  constantly  see,  ideal  material  for  mobs.  The 
wonder  is  not  that  such  outbreaks  take  place,  but  that  they 
have  not  occurred  more  frequently,  and  have  not  been  more 
fatal  to  the  lives  of  foreigners. 

It  is  a Chinese  tenet  that  Heaven  is  influenced  by  the  acts 
and  by  the  spirit  of  human  beings.  Upon  this  principle  de- 
pends the  efficacy  of  the  self-mutilation  on  behalf  of  parents, 
to  which  reference  was  made  in  speaking  of  filial  piety.  That 
this  is  a correct  theory  we  are  not  prepared  to  maintain,  yet 
certain  facts  deserve  mention  which  might  seem  to  support  it. 
The  geographical  situation  and  extent  of  the  Eighteen  Prov- 
inces of  China  bear  a marked  resemblance  to  that  part  of  the 
United  States  of  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
erratic  eccentricities  of  the  climate  of  the  United  States  are, 
as  little  Marjorie  Fleming  remarked  of  the  multiplication  table, 
“more  than  human  nature  can  bear.”  It  was  Hawthorne 
who  observed  of  New  England  that  it  has  “no  climate,  but 
only  samples.”  Contrast  the  weather  in  Boston,  New  York, 
or  Chicago  with  that  of  places  in  the  same  latitude  in  China. 
It  is  not  that  China  is  not,  as  the  geographies  used  to  affirm 


240 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  the  United  States,  “subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,” 
for  in  the  latitude  of  Peking  the  thermometer  ranges  through 
about  one  hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit,  which  ought  to  afford 
sufficient  variety  of  temperature  to  any  mortal. 

But  in  China  these  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  do  not  fol- 
low one  another  with  that  reckless  and  incalculable  lawless- 
ness witnessed  in  the  great  republic,  but  with  an  even  and 
unruffled  sequence  suited  to  an  ancient  and  a patriarchal  sys- 
tem. The  Imperial  almanac  is  the  authorised  exponent  of  the 
threefold  harmony  subsisting  in  China  between  heaven,  earth, 
and  man.  Whether  the  Imperial  almanac  is  equally  trust- 
worthy in  all  parts  of  the  Emperor’s  broad  domain  we  do  not 
know,  but  in  those  regions  with  which  we  happen  to  be  famil- 
iar the  almanac  is  itself  a signal-service.  At  the  point  marked 
for  the  “ establishment  of  spring,”  spring  appears.  In  several 
different  years  we  have  remarked  that  the  day  on  which  the 
“ establishment  of  autumn  ” fell  was  distinguished  by  a marked 
change  in  the  weather,  after  which  the  blistering  heats  of  sum- 
mer returned  no  more.  Instead  of  allowing  the  frost  to  make 
irregular  and  devastating  irruptions  in  every  month  of  the  year 
— as  is  too  often  the  case  in  lands  where  democracy  rules — 
the  Chinese  calendar  fixes  one  of  its  four-and-twenty  “ terms  ” 
as  “frost-fall.”  A few  years  ago  this  “term”  fell  on  the  23d 
of  October.  Up  to  that  day  no  lightest  frost  had  been  seen. 
On  the  morning  of  that  day  the  ground  was  covered  with 
white  frost,  and  continued  to  be  so  covered  every  morning 
thereafter.  We  have  noted  these  correspondences  for  some 
years,  and  have  seldom  observed  a variation  of  more  than  the 
usual  three  days  of  grace. 

It  is  not  inanimate  nature  only  which  in  China  is  amenable 
to  reason  and  to  law,  but  animated  nature  as  well.  For  some 
years  we  have  noticed  that  on  a particular  day  in  early  spring 
the  window-frames  were  adorned  with  several  flies,  where  for 
many  months  no  flies  had  been  seen,  and  on  each  occasion  we 


MUTUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  AND  RESPECT  FOR  LAIV  241 


have  turned  to  the  Imperial  almanac  with  a confidence  justi- 
fied by  the  event,  and  ascertained  that  this  particular  day  was 
the  one  assigned  for  the  “stirring  of  insects”! 

It  has  been  remarked  that  there  is  in  the  blood  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking race  a certain  lawlessness,  which  makes  us  in- 
tolerant of  rules  and  restless  under  restraints.  “ Our  sturdy 
English  ancestors,”  says  Blackstone,  “ held  it  beneath  the  con- 
dition of  a freeman  to  appear,  or  to  do  any  other  act,  at  the 
precise  time  appointed.”  But  for  this  trait  of  our  doughty 
forefathers  the  doctrine  of  personal  liberty  and  the  rights  of 
man  might  have  waited  long  for  assertion. 

But  now  that  these  rights  are  tolerably  well  established, 
might  we  not  judiciously  lay  somewhat  more  emphasis  upon 
the  importance  of  subordinating  the  individual  will  to  the 
public  good,  and  upon  the  majesty  of  law  ? And  in  these 
directions  have  we  not  something  to  learn  from  the  Chinese? 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION. 

IT  is  an  indisputable  truth  that  without  a certain  amount  of 
mutual  confidence  it  is  impossible  for  mankind  to  exist  in 
an  organised  society,  especially  in  a society  so  highly  organised 
and  so  complex  as  that  of  China.  Assuming  this  as  an  axiom, 
it  is  not  the  less  necessary  to  direct  our  attention  to  a series  of 
phenomena,  which,  however  inharmonious  they  may  appear 
with  our  theory,  are  sufficiently  real  to  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  China.  Much  of  what  we  shall  have  to  say  of  the  mutual 
suspicion  of  the  Chinese  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to  this  peo- 
ple ; it  is  rather  a trait  which  they  share  in  common  with  all 
Orientals,  the  manifestations  of  which  are  doubtless  much 
modified  by  the  genius  of  Chinese  institutions.  The  whole 
subject  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  mutual  responsi- 
bility, already  discussed.  Nothing  is  more  likely  to  excite  the 
suspicion  not  of  the  Chinese  only  but  of  any  human  being, 
than  the  danger  that  he  may  be  held  to  account  for  something 
which  has  no  concern  whatever  with  himself,  but  the  conse- 
quences of  which  may  be  most  serious. 

The  first  manifestation  which  attracts  a stranger’s  attention 
of  the  chronic  suspicion  prevailing  in  China  is  the  existence 
in  all  parts  of  the  Empire  of  lofty  walls  which  enclose  all  cities. 
The  fact  that  the  word  for  city  is  in  Chinese  the  equivalent 
for  a walled  city,  is  as  significant  as  the  fact  that  in  the  Latin 
language  the  word  which  denoted  army  also  meant  drill  or 
practice.  The  laws  of  the  Empire  require  that  every  city 

242 


Portion  of  the  Great  Chinese  Wall. 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


243 


shall  be  enclosed  by  a wall  of  a specified  height.  Like  other 
laws  this  statute  is  much  neglected  in  the  letter,  for  there  are 
many  cities  the  walls  of  which  are  allowed  to  crumble  into 
such  decay  that  they  are  no  protection  whatever,  and  we  know 
of  one  district  city  invested  by  the  T‘ai-p‘ing  rebels  and  occu- 
pied by  them  for  many  months,  the  walls  of  which,' although 
utterly  destroyed,  were  not  restored  at  all  for  more  than  a 
decade  afterwards.  Many  cities  have  only  a feeble  mud 
rampart,  quite  inadequate  to  keep  out  even  the  native  dogs, 
which  climb  over  it  at  will.  But  in  all  these  cases  the  occa- 
sion of  these  lapses  from  the  ideal  state  of  things  is  simply 
the  poverty  of  the  country.  Whenever  there  is  an  alarm  of 
trouble,  the  first  step  is  to  repair  the  walls.  The  execution  of 
such  repairs  affords  a convenient  way  in  which  to  fine  officials 
or  others  who  have  made  themselves  too  rich  in  too  short  a 
time. 

The  firm  foundation  on  which  rest  all  the  many  city  walls 
in  China  is  the  distrust  which  the  government  entertains  of  the 
people.  However  the  Emperor  may  be  in  theory  the  father 
of  his  people,  and  his  subordinates  called  “ father  and  mother 
officials,”  all  parties  understand  perfectly  that  these  are  purely 
technical  terms,  like  plus  and  minus , and  that  the  real  relation 
between  the  people  and  their  rulers  is  that  between  children 
and  a stepfather.  The  whole  history  of  China  appears  to  be 
dotted  with  rebellions,  most  of  which  might  apparently  have 
been  prevented  by  proper  action  on  the  part  of  the  general 
government  if  taken  in  time.  The  government  does  not  ex- 
pect to  act  in  time.  Perhaps  it  does  not  wish  to  do  so,  or 
perhaps  it  is  prevented  from  doing  so.  Meantime,  the  people 
slowly  rise,  as  the  government  knew  they  would,  and  the  offi- 
cials promptly  retire  within  these  ready-made  fortifications, 
like  a turtle  into  its  shell  or  a hedgehog  within  its  ball  of 
quills,  and  the  disturbance  is  left  to  the  slow  adjustment  of 
the  troops. 


244 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


The  lofty  walls  which  enclose  all  premises  in  Chinese,  as  in 
other  Oriental  cities  and  towns,  are  another  exemplification 
of  the  same  traits  of  suspicion.  If  it  is  embarrassing  for  a 
foreigner  to  know  how  to  speak  to  a Chinese  of  such  places 
as  London  or  New  York,  without  unintentionally  conveying 
the  notion  that  they  are  “ walled  cities,”  it  is  not  less  difficult 
to  make  Chinese  who  may  be  interested  in  Western  lands 
understand  how  it  can  be  that  in  those  countries  people  often 
have  about  their  premises  no  enclosures  whatever.  The  im- 
mediate, although  unwarranted,  inference  on  the  part  of  the 
Chinese  is  that  in  such  countries  there  must  be  no  bad  char- 
acters of  any  kind. 

The  almost  universal  massing  of  the  rural  Chinese  popula- 
tion in  villages,  which  are  in  reality  miniature  cities,  is  another 
illustration  of  mutual  suspicion.  The  object  is  protection,  not 
from  a foreign  enemy,  but  from  one  another.  The  only  excep- 
tions to  this  agglomeration  of  Chinese  dwellings  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  is  in  the  case  of  some  mountainous  regions 
where  the  land  is  so  barren  that  it  is  incapable  of  supporting 
more  than  one  or  two  families,  the  people  being  so  poor  that 
they  have  no  dread  of  thieves,  and  the  province  of  Szechuan, 
in  which,  as  Mr.  Baber  mentions,  “ the  farmer  and  his  work- 
people live,  it  may  be  said,  invariably  in  farm-houses  on  their 
land,  and  the  tendency  is  to  the  separation  rather  than  to  the 
congregation  of  dwellings.”  If  this  exception  to  the  general 
rule  was  made  because  the  expectation  of  peace  in  that  re- 
mote province  was  thought  to  be  greater  than  in  others,  as 
Baron  von  Richthofen  suggested,  it  has  proved,  as  Mr.  Baber 
remarks,  an  expectation  which  has  suffered  many  and  grievous 
disappointments,  especially — although  after  a long-previous 
peace — in  the  days  of  the  T‘ai-p‘ing  rebels. 

A most  significant  illustration  of  the  Chinese — and  also 
Oriental — suspicion  found  in  social  life  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
theory  and  practice  in  regard  to  woman.  What  that  theory  is 
is  sufficiently  well  known.  An  entire  chapter  would  scarcely 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


245 


do  justice  to  this  branch  of  the  subject.  As  soon  as  they 
come  to  the  age  of  puberty,  girls  are  proverbially  a commod- 
ity as  “ dangerous  as  smuggled  salt.”  When  once  they  are 
betrothed  they  are  kept  far  more  secluded  than  before.  The 
smallest  and  most  innocent  circumstance  is  sufficient  to  start 
vicious  and  malevolent  gossip,  and  it  is  a social  axiom  that 
scandals  cluster  about  a widow’s  door.  While  Chinese  women 
have  incomparably  more  liberty  than  their  sisters  in  Turkey 
or  in  India,*  Chinese  respect  for  women  cannot  be  rated  as 
high.  Universal  ignorance  on  the  part  of  women,  universal 
subordination,  the  existence  of  polygamy  and  concubinage — 
these  are  not  good  preparations  for  that  respect  for  woman- 
hood which  is  one  of  the  fairest  characteristics  of  Western 
civilisation.  It  would  be  easy  to  cite  popular  expressions  in 
illustration  of  the  views  which  the  Chinese  hold  of  women  in 
general,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  generalisations  of 
long  experience.  She  is  spoken  of  as  if  it  were  her  nature  to 
be  mean,  short-sighted,  and  not  to  be  trusted — she  is  consid- 
ered to  be  an  incarnation  of  jealousy,  as  in  the  phrase,  “ it  is 
impossible  to  be  more  jealous  than  a woman,”  where  the  word 
“ jealous  ” suggests,  and  is  intended  to  suggest,  another  word 
with  the  same  sound,  but  meaning  "poisonous.”  This  theory 
is  well  embodied  in  a verse  of  ancient  Chinese  poetry,  of 
which  the  following  lines  are  a translation : 

" The  serpent’s  mouth  in  the  green  bamboo, 

The  yellow  hornet’s  caudal  dart ; 

Little  the  injury  these  can  do ; 

More  venomous  far  is  a woman’s  heart.” 


* The  existence  of  this  liberty,  is  not,  however,  to  be  judged  of  by 
superficial  indications.  A lady  who  resided  for  some  years  in  the  Indian 
city  of  Delhi,  and  subsequently  at  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Shansi, 
remarked  that  fewer  Chinese  women  were  ordinarily  to  be  seen  upon  the 
streets  of  the  latter  city,  than  Indian  women  upon  the  streets  of  the  former 
one.  Yet  this  circumstance  does  not  at  all  conflict  with  the  truth  of  the 
statement  to  which  this  note  is  appended. 


246 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


These  views  are  incidentally  exemplified  with  a fine  and  un- 
conscious impartiality  in  the  very  structure  of  the  Chinese 
language,  in  a manner  to  which  attention  has  been  often 
directed.  An  excellent  scholar  in  Chinese,  in  response  to  a 
request  from  the  writer,  examined  with  care  a list  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  of  the  more  common  characters  which  are 
written  with  the  radical  denoting  woman,  and  found  that 
fourteen  of  them  conveyed  a meaning  which  might  be  classed 
as  good,  such  as  the  words  “ good,”  “ skilful,”  and  the  like ; 
of  the  remainder,  thirty-five  are  bad,  and  eighty-six  indifferent 
in  meaning.  But  those  classed  as  bad  contain  some  of  the 
most  disreputable  words  in  the  whole  language.  The  radical 
for  woman  combined  with  that  denoting  shield  signifies  u de- 
ceitful, fraudulent,  villainous,  traitorous,  selfish  ” ; while  three 
women  in  combination  convey  the  ideas  of  “ fornication, 
adultery,  seduction,  to  intrigue.” 

There  are  said  to  be  two  reasons  why  people  do  not  trust 
one  another:  first,  because  they  do  not  know  one  another, 
and  second,  because  they  do.  The  Chinese  think  that  they 
have  each  of  these  reasons  for  mistrust,  and  they  act  accord- 
ingly. While  the  Chinese  are  gifted  with  a capacity  for  com- 
bination which  at  times  seems  to  suggest  the  union  of  chemical 
atoms,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  by  careful  inquiry  at  the  proper 
sources  and  at  the  proper  times,  that  the  Chinese  do  not  by 
any  means  trust  one  another  in  the  implicit  way  which  the 
external  phenomena  might  imply.  Members  of  the  same 
family  are  constantly  the  victims  of  mutual  suspicion,  which  is 
fanned  by  the  women  who  have  married  into  the  family,  and 
who  as  sisters-in-law  are  able  to  do  much,  and  who  frequently 
do  what  they  can,  to  foment  jealousy  between  their  husbands 
in  regard  to  the  division  of  the  proceeds  of  the  common 
labour. 

Not  to  enlarge  upon  this  aspect  of  domestic  life,  which  by 
itself  might  occupy  a chapter,  we  pass  to  the  notice  of  the 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


247 


same  general  state  of  things  among  those  who  are  not  united 
by  the  complex  ties  of  Chinese  family  life.  A company  of 
servants  in  a family  often  stand  to  one  another  in  a relation 
of  what  may  be  called  armed  neutrality,  that  is,  if  they  have 
not  been  introduced  by  some  one  who  is  responsible  for  them 
all.  If  anything  comes  out  to  the  disadvantage  of  any  one 
of  them,  his  first  question  to  himself  is  not,  " How  did  the 
master  find  that  out?”  but  “Who  told  him  of  me?”  Even 
if  the  servant  is  well  aware  that  his  guilt  has  been  proved,  his 
first  thought  will  be  to  show  that  some  other  servant  had  a 
grudge  against  him.  We  have  known  a Chinese  woman  to 
change  colour  and  leave  a room  in  great  dudgeon  on  hearing 
loud  voices  in  the  yard,  because  she  supposed  that  as  there 
was  an  angry  discussion,  it  must  be  about  her,  whereas  the 
matter  was  in  relation  to  a pile  of  millet  stalks  bought  for  fuel, 
for  which  a dealer  demanded  too  high  a price. 

It  is  this  kind  of  suspicion  which  fans  the  fires  of  dissension 
that  are  almost  sure  to  arise  when  a servant  has  been  unex- 
pectedly discharged.  He  suspects  every  one  but  himself,  is 
certain  that  some  one  has  been  speaking  ill  of  him,  insists  upon 
being  told  the  allegations  against  him,  although  he  knows  that 
there  are  half  a score  of  reasons,  any  of  which  would  justify 
his  immediate  dismissal.  His  “ face  ” must  be  secured,  and 
his  suspicious  nature  must  be  gratified.  These  occurrences 
take  place  in  Chinese  families  as  well  as  in  foreign  families 
with  Chinese  servants,  but  not  in  the  same  degree,  because  a 
Chinese  servant  has  learned  how  far  he  can  impose  upon  the 
good-nature  of  the  foreigner,  as  he  would  never  think  of  doing 
in  the  case  of  a Chinese  master.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  so 
many  foreigners  have  in  their  employ  Chinese  servants  whom 
they  ought  to  have  discharged  long  ago,  and  would  have  dis- 
charged if  they  had  dared.  They  know  that  the  mere  pro- 
posal of  such  a thing  will  be  the  stirring  up  of  a hornet’s  nest, 
the  central  figure  of  which  will  be  the  accused  and  “disgraced  ” 


248 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


servant,  and  they  have  not  the  courage  to  make  a strike  for 
liberty,  lest  in  the  case  of  failure  their  condition  should  be 
worse  than  before. 

There  is  a story  of  an  Austrian  city  which  was  besieged  by 
the  Turks  in  the  middle  ages,  and  which  was  just  on  the  point 
of  capture.  At  a critical  moment  an  Austrian  girl  bethought 
herself  of  a number  of  bee-hives,  which  she  at  once  brought 
and  tumbled  over  the  wall  on  the  Turks,  now  almost  up  to  the 
parapet.  The  result  was  a speedy  descent  on  the  part  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  saving  of  the  city.  The  tactics  of  a Chinese 
often  resemble  that  of  the  Austrian  maiden,  and  his  success  is 
frequently  as  signal,  for  this  kind  of  a disturbance  is  such  that, 
as  a Latin  professor  said  of  a storm,  one  would  much  rather 
“face  it  per  alium  ” than  “face  it  perse."  No  wonder  that 
the  adage  runs,  “If  you  employ  one,  do  not  suspect  him;  if 
you  suspect  him,  do  not  employ  him.”  The  Chinese  way  in 
such  cases  is  simply  to  close  one’s  eyes  and  to  pretend  that 
one  does  not  see,  but  for  a foreigner  this  may  not  be  so  simple 
and  easy  to  achieve. 

We  find  it  necessary  to  impress  upon  our  children,  when 
they  come  to  be  of  an  age  to  mingle  in  the  world  on  their  own 
account,  that  it  is  well  not  to  be  too  confiding  in  strangers. 
This  kind  of  caution  does  not  need  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
Chinese  in  their  early  years,  for  it  is  taken  in  with  their 
mother’s  milk.  It  is  a proverb  that  one  man  should  not  enter 
a temple,  and  that  two  men  should  not  look  together  into  a 
well.  And  why,  we  inquire  in  surprise,  should  one  man  not 
enter  a temple  court  alone?  Because  the  priest  may  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  make  away  with  him!  Two 
men  should  not  gaze  into  a well,  for  if  one  of  them  is  in  debt 
to  the  other,  or  has  in  his  possession  something  which  the 
other  wants,  that  other  may  seize  the  occasion  to  push  his 
companion  into  the  well! 

Another  class  of  examples  of  mutual  suspicion  are  those 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


249 


arising  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  everyday  life.  There  is  a 
freedom  and  an  absence  of  constraint  in  Western  lands  which 
in  China  is  conspicuously  absent.  To  us  it  seems  a matter  of 
course  that  the  simplest  way  to  do  a thing  is  for  that  reason 
the  best.  But  in  China  there  are  different  and  quite  other 
factors  of  which  account  must  be  taken.  While  this  is  true 
in  regard  to  everything,  it  is  most  felt  in  regard  to  two  matters 
which  form  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  lives  of  most  Chinese — 
money  and  food.  It  is  very  difficult  to  convince  a Chinese 
that  a sum  of  money,  which  may  have  been  put  into  the 
hands  of  another  to  be  divided  between  many  persons,  has 
been  divided  according  to  the  theoretical  plan,  for  he  has  no 
experience  of  any  divisions  of  this  sort,  and  he  has  had  ex- 
tended experience  of  divisions  in  which  various  deductions  in 
the  shape  of  squeezes  were  the  prominent  features.  In  like 
manner,  it  is  very  hard  to  make  an  arrangement  by  which  one 
Chinese  shall  have  charge  of  the  food  provision  for  others,  in 
which,  if  close  inquiry  is  made,  it  shall  not  appear  that  those 
who  receive  the  food  suppose  that  the  one  who  provides  it  is 
retaining  a certain  proportion  for  his  own  use.  The  dissatis- 
faction in  such  cases  may  possibly  be  wholly  suppressed,  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  suspicion  is  absent  because 
it  does  not  manifest  itself  upon  the  surface.  Indeed,  it  is 
only  a foreigner  who  would  raise  the  question  at  all,  for  the 
Chinese  expect  this  state  of  things  as  surely  as  they  reckon  on 
friction  in  machinery,  and  with  equal  reason. 

It  is  the  custom  of  waiters  in  Chinese  inns,  upon  leaving 
the  room  of  a guest  who  has  just  paid  his  bill,  to  shout  out 
each  item  of  the  account,  not  in  order  to  sound  the  praises  of 
him  who  has  spent  most  money — as  some  travellers  have  sup- 
posed— but  for  the  much  more  practical  purpose  of  letting  the 
other  waiters  know  that  the  one  who  thus  publicly  declares 
the  receipts  is  not  secreting  a portion  of  the  gratuity,  or  “ wine- 
money,”  which  they  invariably  expect. 


250 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


If  any  matter  is  to  be  accomplished  which  requires  con 
sultation  and  adjustment,  it  will  not  do  in  China,  as  it  might 
in  any  Western  land,  to  send  a mere  message  to  be  delivered 
at  the  home  of  the  person  concerned,  to  the  effect  that  such 
and  such  terms  could  be  arranged.  The  principal  must  go 
himself,  and  he  must  see  the  principal  on  the  other  side.  If 
the  latter  should  not  be  at  home,  the  visit  must  be  repeated 
until  he  is  found,  for  otherwise  no  one  would  be  sure  that  the 
matter  had  not  been  distorted  in  its  transmission  through  other 
media. 

Frequent  references  have  been  made  to  the  social  solidarity 
of  the  Chinese.  In  some  cases  the  whole  family  or  clan  all 
seem  to  have  their  fingers  in  the  particular  pie  belonging  to 
some  individual  of  the  family.  But  into  such  affairs  a person 
with  a different  surname  is,  if  he  be  a wise  person,  careful  not 
to  intrude  any  of  his  fingers,  lest  they  be  burned.  It  is  indeed 
a proverb  that  it  is  hard  to  give  advice  to  one  whose  surname 
is  different  from  one’s  own.  What  does  this  fellow  mean  by 
mixing  himself  up  in  my  affairs?  He  must  have  an  object, 
and  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  object  is  not  a good  one. 
If  this  is  true  of  those  who  are  life-long  neighbours  and  friends, 
how  much  more  is  it  true  of  those  who  are  mere  outsiders,  and 
who  have  no  special  relations  to  the  persons  addressed. 

The  character  meaning  “ outside,”  has  in  China  a scope  and 
a significance  which  can  only  be  comprehended  by  degrees. 
The  same  kind  of  objection  which  is  made  to  a foreigner  be- 
cause he  comes  from  an  “ outside  ” country,  is  made  to  a vil- 
lager because  he  comes  from  an  “outside”  village.  This  is 
true  with  much  greater  emphasis  if  the  outsider  comes  from 
no  one  knows  where,  and  wants  no  one  knows  what.  “ Who 
knows  what  drug  this  fellow  has  in  his  gourd?”  is  the  inevita- 
ble inquiry  of  the  prudent  Chinese  in  regard  to  a fresh  arrival. 

If  a traveller  happens  to  get  astray  and  arrives  at  a village 


A Chinese  Boy’s  School  (Christian). 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


251 


after  dark,  particularly  if  the  hour  is  late,  he  will  often  find 
that  no  one  will  even  come  out  of  his  house  to  give  a simple 
direction.  Under  these  circumstances  the  writer  once  wan- 
dered around  for  several  hours,  unable  to  get  one  of  the  many 
Chinese  who  were  offered  a reward  for  acting  as  a guide  even 
to  listen  to  the  proposal. 

All  scholars  in  Chinese  schools  spend  their  time  in  shouting 
out  their  lessons  at  the  top  of  their  voices,  to  the  great  injury 
of  their  vocal  organs,  and  to  the  almost  complete  distraction 
of  the  foreigner.  This  is  “ old-time  custom,”  but  if  the  inquiry 
for  the  reason  be  relentlessly  pushed,  one  is  told  that  without 
this  audible  assurance  the  teacher  would  suspect  that  his  pupils 
were  not  devoting  their  exclusive  attention  to  their  lessons. 
The  singular  practice  of  making  each  scholar  turn  his  back 
upon  the  teacher  during  the  recitation  is  likewise  due  to  the 
desire  of  the  teacher  to  be  certain  that  the  pupil  is  not  furtively 
glancing  at  the  book  held  in  the  master’s  hand! 

It  is  not  every  form  of  civilisation  which  emphasises  the 
duty  of  entertaining  strangers.  Many  of  the  proverbs  of  Sol- 
omon in  regard  to  caution  towards  strangers  gain  a new  mean- 
ing after  actual  contact  with  Orientals,  but  the  Chinese  have 
carried  their  caution  to  a point  which  it  would  be  hard  to  sur- 
pass. A Chinese  teacher  employed  by  a foreigner  to  pick  up 
children’s  ballads  and  sayings  heard  a little  boy  singing  a non- 
sense song  which  was  new  to  the  teacher,  who  asked  the  little 
fellow  to  repeat  the  words,  whereupon  the  child  fled  terror- 
stricken  and  was  seen  no  more.  He  was  a typical  product  of 
Chinese  environment.  If  a man  has  become  insane  and  has 
strayed  away  from  home,  and  his  friends  scour  the  country- 
side, hoping  to  hear  something  of  him,  they  know  very  well 
that  the  chances  of  finding  traces  of  him  are  slight.  If  he  has 
been  at  a particular  place,  but  has  disappeared,  the  natural 
inquiry  of  his  pursuers  would  be,  What  did  you  do  with  him? 


252 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


This  might  lead  to  trouble,  so  the  safest  way,  and  the  one  sure 
to  be  adopted  if  the  inquirer  is  a stranger,  is  to  assume  total 
ignorance  of  the  whole  affair. 

The  same  thing  will  not  seldom  happen,  as  we  have  learned 
by  experience,  when  a Chinese  stranger  tries  to  find  a man 
who  is  well  known.  In  a case  of  this  sort,  a man  whose  ap- 
pearance indicated  him  to  be  a native  of  an  adjacent  province 
inquired  his  way  to  the  village  of  a man  of  whom  he  was  in 
quest.  But  on  his  arrival  he  was  disappointed  to  find  that  the 
whole  village  was  unanimous  in  the  affirmation  that  no  such 
man  was  known  there,  and  that  he  had  never  even  been  heard 
of.  This  wholesale  falsehood  was  not  concocted  by  any  de- 
liberate prevision,  for  which  there  was  no  opportunity,  but  was 
simultaneously  adopted  by  a whole  villageful  of  people,  with 
the  same  unerring  instinct  which  leads  the  prairie-dog  to  dive 
into  its  hole  when  some  unfamiliar  object  is  sighted. 

In  all  instances  of  this  kind,  the  slight  variations  of  local 
dialect  afford  an  infallible  test  of  the  general  region  from 
which  one  hails.  A countryman  who  meets  others  will  be  ex- 
amined by  them  as  to  his  abode  and  its  distance  from  a great 
number  of  other  places,  as  if  to  make  sure  that  he  is  not  de- 
ceiving them.  In  the  same  manner,  scholars  are  not  content 
with  inquiring  of  a professed  literary  graduate  when  he  “ en- 
tered,” but  he  will  not  improbably  be  cross-examined  upon  the 
theme  of  his  essay,  and  how  he  treated  it.  In  this  way  it  is 
not  difficult,  and  is  very  common,  to  expose  a fraud.  It  is 
hopeless  for  a man  to  claim  to  be  a native  of  a district  the 
pronunciation  of  which  differs  by  ever  so  little  from  his  own, 
for  his  speech  bewrayeth  him.  Not  only  will  a stranger  find 
it  hard  to  get  a clue  to  the  whereabouts  of  a man,  his  possible 
business  with  whom  excites  instantaneous  and  general  suspi- 
cion, but  the  same  thing  may  be  true,  as  we  have  also  had  re- 
peated occasion  to  know,  in  regard  to  a whole  village.  The 
writer  once  sent  several  Chinese  to  look  up  certain  other 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


253 


Chinese  who  had  been  for  a long  time  in  a foreign  hospital 
under  treatment.  Very  few  of  them  could  be  found  at  all. 
In  one  case  a man  who  ventured  to  hold  conversation  with 
the  strangers  gave  his  surname  only,  which  was  that  of  a large 
clan,  but  positively  refused  to  reveal  his  name,  or  “ style.”  In 
another  instance,  a village  of  which  the  messengers  were  in 
search  persistently  retreated  before  them,  like  an  ignus  fa  tints, 
and  at  last  all  traces  of  it  disappeared,  without  its  having  been 
found  at  all!  Yet  once  the  strangers  were  probably  within  a 
mile  or  two  of  it,  and  in  the  case  just  referred  to,  the  stranger 
who  could  not  find  the  man  for  whom  he  was  looking,  proved 
to  have  been  within  ten  rods  of  his  dwelling  at  the  time  he 
was  baffled. 

The  writer  is  acquainted  with  an  elderly  man  who  has  a 
well-to-do  neighbour  with  whom  he  was  formerly  associated  in 
one  of  the  secret  sects  so  common  in  China.  On  asking  him 
about  this  neighbour,  whose  house  was  at  a little  distance  from 
his  own,  it  turned  out  that  the  two  men,  who  had  grown  up 
together  and  had  passed  more  than  sixty  years  in  proximity, 
never  met.  “ And  why  was  this?  ” “ Because  the  other  man 

is  getting  old  and  does  not  go  out  much.”  “ Why,  then,  do 
you  not  sometimes  go  to  see  him  and  talk  over  old  times? 
Are  you  not  on  good  terms?  ” The  person  addressed  smiled 
the  smile  of  conscious  superiority,  and  shook  his  head.  “ Yes,” 
he  said,  “we  are  on  good  terms  enough,  but  he  is  well  off,  and 
I am  poor,  and  if  I were  to  go  there  it  would  make  talk. 
Folks  would  say,  What  is  he  coming  here  for  ? ” 

A conspicuous  illustration  of  the  instinctive  recognition  by 
the  Chinese  of  the  existence  of  their  own  mutual  suspicion  is 
found  in  the  reluctance  to  be  left  alone  in  a room.  If  this 
should  happen,  a guest  will  not  improbably  exhibit  a restless 
demeanour  and  will  perhaps  stroll  out  into  the  passage,  as 
much  as  to  say,  “ Do  not  suspect  me ; I did  not  take  your 
things,  as  you  see ; I put  them  behind  me.”  The  same  thing 


254 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


is  sometimes  observed  when  a self-respecting  Chinese  calls 
upon  a foreigner. 

Nothing  is  so  certain  to  excite  the  most  violent  suspicion  on 
the  part  of  the  Chinese  as  the  death  of  a person  under  circum- 
stances which  are  in  some  respects  peculiar.  A typical  ex- 
ample of  this  is  the  death  of  a married  daughter.  Although, 
as  already  mentioned,  the  parents  are  powerless  to  protect  her 
while  she  lives,  they  are  in  some  degree  masters  of  the  situation 
when  she  has  died,  provided  that  there  is  anything  to  which 
any  suspicion  can  be  made  to  attach  itself.  Her  suicide  is  an 
occasion  on  which  the  girl’s  parents  no  longer  adopt  their  pro- 
verbial position  of  holding  down  the  head,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
hold  their  head  erect,  and  virtually  impose  their  own  terms. 
The  refusal  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the  family  of 
the  girl  under  such  circumstances  would  be  punished  by  a long 
and  vexatious  lawsuit,  the  motive  for  which  would  be  in  the 
first  instance  revenge,  but  the  main  issue  of  which  would 
eventually  be  the  preservation  of  the  " face  ” of  the  girl’s 
family. 

There  is  an  ancient  saying  in  China,  that  when  one  is  walk- 
ing through  an  orchard  where  pears  are  grown  it  is  well  not  to 
adjust  one’s  cap,  and  when  passing  through  a melon  patch  it 
is  not  the  time  to  lace  one’s  shoes.  These  sage  aphorisms  rep- 
resent a generalised  truth.  In  Chinese  social  life  it  is  strictly 
necessary  to  walk  softly,  and  one  cannot  be  too  careful.  This 
is  the  reason  why  the  Chinese  are  so  constitutionally  reticent 
at  times  which  seem  to  us  so  ill-chosen.  They  know  as  we 
cannot  that  the  smallest  spark  may  kindle  a fire  that  shall 
sweep  a thousand  acres. 

The  commercial  life  of  the  Chinese  illustrates  their  mutual 
suspicion  in  a great  variety  of  ways.  Neither  buyer  nor  seller 
trusts  the  other,  and  each  for  that  reason  thinks  that  his  in- 
terests are  subserved  by  putting  his  affairs  for  the  time  being 
out  of  his  own  hands  into  those  of  a third  person  who  is  strictly 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


255 


neutral,  because  his  percentage  will  only  be  obtained  by  the 
completion  of  the  bargain.  No  transaction  is  considered  as 
made  at  all,  until  “ bargain  money  ” has  been  paid.  If  the 
matter  is  a more  comprehensive  one,  something  must  be  put 
into  writing,  for  “ talk  is  empty,  while  the  mark  of  a pen  is 
final.” 

The  chaotic  condition  of  the  silver  market  in  China  is  due 
partly  to  the  deep-seated  suspicion  which  cash-shops  entertain 
for  their  customers,  and  which  customers  cherish  towards  the 
cash-shops,  in  each  case  with  the  best  grounds.  Every  chopped 
dollar  in  south  China,  every  chopped  piece  of  chopped  silver 
in  any  part  of  China,  is  a witness  to  the  suspicious  nature  of 
this  great  and  commercial  people ; keen  as  they  are  to  effect 
a trade,  they  are  keener  still  in  their  reluctance  to  do  so.  The 
very  fact  that  a customer,  whether  Chinese  or  foreign  makes 
no  difference,  wishes  to  sell  silver  after  dark  is  of  itself  suspi- 
cious, and  it  will  not  be  surprising  if  every  shop  in  the  city 
should  successively  impart  the  sage  advice  to  wait  till  to- 
morrow. 

The  banking  system  of  China  appears  to  be  very  compre- 
hensive and  intricate,  and  we  know  from  Marco  Polo  that 
bank-bills  have  been  in  use  from  a very  ancient  period.  But 
they  are  not  by  any  means  universal  in  their  occurrence,  and 
all  of  them  appear  to  be  exceedingly  limited  in  the  range  of 
their  circulation.  The  banks  of  two  cities  ten  miles  apart  will 
not  receive  each  other’s  bills,  and  for  a very  good  reason. 

The  high  rate  of  Chinese  interest,  ranging  from  twenty-four 
to  thirty-six  or  more  per  cent.,  is  a proof  of  the  lack  of  mutual 
confidence.  The  larger  part  of  this  extortionate  exaction  does 
not  represent  payment  for  the  use  of  money,  but  insurance  on 
risk,  which  is  very  great.  The  almost  total  lack  of  such  forms 
of  investments  as  we  are  so  familiar  with  in  Western  lands  is 
due  not  more  to  the  lack  of  development  of  the  resources  of 
the  Empire,  than  to  the  general  mistrust  of  one  another  among 


256 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  people.  “ The  affairs  of  life  hinge  upon  confidence,”  and 
it  is  for  this  reason  that  a large  class  of  affairs  in  China  will 
for  a long  time  to  come  be  dissociated  from  their  hinges,  to 
the  great  detriment  of  the  interests  of  the  people. 

A curious  example  of  Chinese  commercial  suspicion  was 
afforded  a few  years  ago  by  a paragraph  in  the  newspapers, 
giving  an  account  of  the  condition  of  things  in  the  Chinese 
colony  in  the  city  of  New  York.  The  Chinese  organisation 
probably  does  not  differ  from  that  of  other  cities  where  the 
Chinese  have  established  themselves.  They  have  a Municipal 
Government  of  their  own,  and  twelve  leading  Chinese  are  the 
officers  thereof.  They  keep  the  money  and  the  papers  of  the 
Municipality  in  a huge  iron  safe,  and  to  insure  absolute  safety 
the  safe  is  locked  with  twelve  ponderous  brass  (Chinese)  pad- 
locks all  in  a row,  instead  of  the  intricate  and  beautiful  com- 
bination locks  used  in  the  New  York  banks.  Each  one  of 
the  twelve  members  of  the  Chinese  Board  of  Aldermen  has 
a key  to  one  of  these  padlocks,  and  when  the  safe  is  opened 
all  twelve  of  them  must  be  on  hand,  each  to  attend  to  the  un- 
locking of  his  own  padlock.  One  of  these  distinguished  aider- 
men  having  inopportunely  died,  the  affairs  of  the  Municipality 
were  thrown  into  the  utmost  confusion.  The  key  to  his  pad- 
lock could  not  be  found,  and  if  it  had  been  found  no  one 
would  have  ventured  to  take  the  place  of  the  deceased,  through 
a superstitious  fear  that  the  dead  man  would  be  jealous  of  his 
successor,  and  would  remove  him  by  the  same  disease  of  which 
he  himself  had  died.  Even  the  funeral  bills  could  not  be  paid 
until  a special  election  had  taken  place  to  fill  the  vacancy. 
This  little  incident  is  indeed  a window  through  which  those 
who  choose  to  do  so  may  see  some  of  the  prominent  traits  of 
the  Chinese  character  clearly  illustrated — capacity  for  organisa- 
tion, commercial  ability,  mutual  suspicion,  unlimited  credulity, 
and  tacit  contempt  for  the  institutions  and  inventions  of  the 
men  of  the  West. 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


257 


The  structure  of  the  Chinese  government  contains  many 
examples  of  the  effects  of  lack  of  confidence.  Eunuchs  are 
an  essentially  Asiatic  instance  in  point,  and  they  are  supposed 
to  have  existed  in  China  from  very  ancient  times ; but  during 
the  present  dynasty  this  dangerous  class  of  persons  has  been 
dealt  with  in  a very  practical  way  by  the  Manchus,  and  de- 
prived of  the  power  to  do  the  same  mischief  as  in  past  ages. 

Another  example  of  the  provision  for  that  suspicion  which 
must  inevitably  arise  when  such  inharmonious  elements  as  the 
conquerors  and  the  conquered  are  to  be  co-ordinated  in  high 
places,  is  the  singular  combination  of  Manchus  and  Chinese 
in  the  administration  of  the  government,  as  well  as  the  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  president  of  one  of  the  Six  Boards  may  be 
the  vice-president  of  another.  By  these  checks  and  balances 
the  equilibrium  of  the  state  machinery  has  been  preserved. 
The  censorate  furnishes  another  illustration  of  the  same  thing, 
on  an  extended  and  important  scale. 

Those  whose  knowledge  of  the  interior  workings  of  the 
Chinese  administration  entitles  their  opinions  to  weight,  assure 
us  that  the  same  mutual  suspicion  which  we  have  seen  to  be 
characteristic  of  the  social  life  of  the  Chinese  is  equally  char- 
acteristic of  their  official  life.  It  could  not  indeed  be  other- 
wise. Chinese  nature  being  what  it  is,  high  officials  cannot 
but  be  jealous  of  those  below  them,  for  it  is  from  that  quarter 
that  their  rivals  are  to  be  dreaded.  The  lower  officials,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  not  less  suspicious  of  those  above  them,  for  it 
is  from  that  quarter  that  their  removal  may  be  at  any  moment 
effected.  There  seems  the  best  reason  to  believe  that  both 
the  higher  and  the  lower  officials  alike  are  more  or  less  jealous 
of  the  large  and  powerful  literary  class,  and  the  officials  are 
uniformly  suspicious  of  the  people.  This  last  state  of  mind  is 
well  warranted  by  what  is  known  of  the  multitudinous  semi- 
political sects,  with  which  the  whole  Empire  is  honeycombed. 
A District  Magistrate  will  pounce  down  upon  the  annual  gath- 


258 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ering  of  a temperance  society  such  as  the  well-known  Tsai-li, 
which  merely  forbids  opium,  wine,  and  tobacco,  and  turn  over 
their  anticipated  feast  to  the  voracious  “ wolves  and  tigers  ” 
of  his  yamen,  not  because  it  is  proved  that  the  designs  of  the 
Tsai-li  Society  are  treasonable,  but  because  it  has  been  offi- 
cially assumed  long  since  that  they  must  be  so.  All  secret 
societies  are  treasonable,  and  this  among  the  rest.  This 
generalised  suspicion  settles  the  whole  question,  and  whenever 
occasion  arises  the  government  interposes,  seizes  the  leaders, 
banishes  or  exterminates  them,  and  thus  for  the  moment 
allays  its  suspicions. 

It  is  obvious  that  so  powerful  a principle  as  the  one  which 
we  are  considering  must  be  a strong  reinforcement  of  that 
innate  conservatism  which  has  been  already  discussed,  to  pre- 
vent the  adoption  of  what  is  new.  The  census  which  is  occa- 
sionally called  for  by  the  government  does  not  occur  with 
sufficient  frequency  to  make  it  familiar  to  the  Chinese,  even 
in  name.  It  always  excites  an  immediate  suspicion  that  some 
ulterior  end  is  in  view.  How  real  this  suspicion  is,  is  illus- 
trated by  an  incident  which  occurred  in  a village  next  to  the 
one  in  which  the  writer  lived.  One  of  two  brothers,  hearing 
that  a new  census  had  been  ordered,  took  it  for  granted  that 
it  signified  compulsory  emigration.  It  is  customary  in  such 
cases  to  leave  one  brother  at  home  to  look  after  the  graves 
of  the  ancestors,  but  the  younger  of  the  two,  foreseeing  that 
he  must  go,  promptly  proceeded  to  save  himself  from  the 
fatigues  of  a long  journey  by  committing  suicide,  thus  check- 
mating the  government. 

It  is  a mixture  of  suspicion  and  of  conservatism  which  has 
made  the  path  of  the  young  Chinese  who  were  educated  in 
the  United  States  such  a bed  of  thorns  from  the  time  of  their 
return  to  the  present  day ; it  is  the  same  fell  combination 
which  shows  itself  in  opposition  to  the  inevitable  introduction 
of  railways  into  China.  Suspicion  of  the  motives  of  the  gov- 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


2 59 

ernment  will  long  prevent  the  reforms  which  China  needs. 
More  than  thirty  years  ago,  when  the  importance  of  the  issue 
of  small  silver  coinage  was  pointed  out  to  a distinguished 
statesman  in  Peking,  he  replied — with  great  truth — that  it 
would  never  do  to  attempt  to  change  the  currency  of  the 
Empire.  “ Were  it  to  be  tried,  the  people  would  immediately 
suppose  that  the  government  gained  some  advantage  by  it, 
and  it  would  not  work.” 

Great  obstacles  are  invariably  thrown  in  the  way  of  the 
opening  of  mines,  which,  if  properly  worked,  might  make 
China  what  she  ought  to  be,  a rich  country.  The  “ earth 
dragon  ” below  ground,  and  peculation  and  suspicion  above 
it,  are  as  yet  too  much  for  anything  more  than  the  most  rudi- 
mentary steps  of  progress  in  this  most  essential  direction.  No 
matter  how  great  advantages  may  be  or  how  obvious,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  new  things  introduced  when  an  all- 
pervading  suspicion  frowns  upon  them.  The  late  Dr.  Nevius, 
who  did  so  much  at  Chefoo  for  the  cultivation  of  a high 
grade  of  foreign  fruits  in  China,  fruits  which  visibly  yield  an 
enormous  profit,  was  obliged  to  contend  against  this  suspicion 
at  every  step,  and  one  less  patient  and  less  philanthropic 
would  have  abandoned  the  project  in  disgust.  When  profits 
are  once  assured  this  state  of  things  of  course  gradually  dis- 
appears. But  it  is  very  real  when  inquiries  are  set  on  foot 
like  those  by  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  in  regard  to  the 
raising  of  silk-worms  or  tea.  How  can  those  who  are  inter- 
ested in  these  matters  possibly  believe,  in  defiance  of  all  the 
accumulated  experience  of  past  ages,  that  the  object  of  these 
inquiries  is  not  a tax,  but  the  promotion  of  production  and  the 
increase  of  the  profits  of  skilled  labour  ? Who  ever  heard  of 
such  a thing,  and  wrho  can  believe  it  when  he  does  hear  it  ? The 
attitude  of  the  Chinese  mind  towards  such  projects  as  this  may 
be  expressed  in  the  old  Dutch  proverb,  “ Good-morrow  to 
you  all,  as  the  fox  said  when  he  leaped  into  the  goose-pen ! ” 


26o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


It  remains  to  speak  of  the  special  relations  of  this  topic  to 
foreigners.  The  profound  suspicion  with  which  foreigners  are 
regarded  is  often  accompanied  by,  and  perhaps  largely  due 
to,  a belief,  deep-rooted  and  ineradicable,  that  foreigners  are 
able  to  do  the  most  impossible  things  with  the  greatest  ease. 
If  a foreigner  walks  out  in  a place  where  he  has  not  been 
often  seen,  it  is  inferred  that  he  is  inspecting  the  feng-shui  of 
the  district.  If  he  surveys  a river,  he  is  determining  the  exist- 
ence of  precious  metals.  He  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  see 
some  distance  into  the  earth,  and  to  have  his  eyes  on  what- 
ever is  best  worth  taking  away.  If  he  engages  in  famine  re- 
lief, it  is  not  thought  too  much  to  suppose  that  the  ultimate 
object  must  be  to  carry  off  a large  part  of  the  population  of 
the  district,  to  be  disposed  of  in  foreign  lands.  It  is  by  reason 
of  these  opinions  on  feng-shui  that  the  presence  of  foreigners 
on  the  walls  of  Chinese  cities  has  so  often  led  to  disturbances, 
and  that  the  height  of  foreign  buildings  in  China  must  be  as 
carefully  regulated  as  the  location  of  a frontier  of  the  Empire. 
The  belief  in  the  uniformity  of  nature  appears  to  be  totally 
lacking  in  China.  Mr.  Baber  mentions  a saying  in  Szechuan 
of  a certain  hill,  that  opium  grows  without,  and  coal  within. 
But  this  is  not  simply  a notion  of  the  ignorant,  for  Professor 
Pumpelly  declares  that  one  of  the  high  officials  in  Peking  told 
him  the  same  thing,  and  used  the  statement  as  an  argument 
against  the  too  rapid  removal  of  coal  deposits,  the  rate  of  the 
growth  of  which  is  unknown.  It  is  said  that  the  late  states- 
man Wen  Hsiang,  having  read  Dr.  Martin’s  “ Evidences  of 
Christianity,”  was  asked  what  he  thought  of  it,  to  which  he 
replied  that  the  scientific  part  of  the  work  he  was  prepared  to 
accept,  but  the  religious  sections , in  which  the  affirmation  is 
made  that  the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun,  were  more  than 
he  could  believe! 

The  whole  subject  of  the  entrance  of  foreigners  into  China 
is  beyond  the  Chinese  intellect  in  its  present  state  of  develop- 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


261 


ment.  Seeing  Baron  von  Richthofen  ride  over  the  country 
in  what  appeared  to  the  people  of  Szechuan  a vague  and 
purposeless  manner,  they  imagined  him  to  be  a fugitive  from 
some  disastrous  battle.  Many  a Chinese,  who  has  afterwards 
come  to  understand  the  foreign  barbarian  all  too  well,  has  at 
first  sight  of  his  form,  especially  if  he  chanced  to  be  tall,  been 
seized  with  secret  terror.  Many  Chinese  women  are  persuaded 
that  if  they  once  voluntarily  enter  a foreigner’s  dwelling  the 
fatal  spell  will  work,  and  they  will  be  bewitched ; if  they  are 
at  last  prevailed  upon  to  enter,  they  will  not  on  any  account 
step  on  the  threshold,  nor  look  into  a mirror  when  it  may  be 
offered  to  their  sight,  for  thus  they  would  betray  away  their 
safety. 

A few  years  ago  a young  Chinese  scholar  from  an  inte- 
rior province,  where  foreigners  were  practically  unknown,  was 
engaged  with  some  difficulty  to  come  to  the  premises  of  the 
writer  to  assist  a new-comer  in  acquiring  the  language.  He 
remained  a few  weeks,  when  he  recollected  that  his  mother 
was  very  much  in  need  of  his  filial  care,  and  left,  promising  to 
return  at  a fixed  date,  but  was  seen  no  more.  During  all  the 
time  that  he  was  on  the  foreigner’s  premises,  this  astute  Con- 
fucianist  never  once  took  a sip  of  tea,  which  was  brought  to 
him  regularly  by  the  servants,  nor  ate  a meal  on  the  place,  lest 
he  should  imbibe  besotment.  When  a foreign  envelope  was 
handed  to  him  by  another  teacher,  that  he  might  enclose  the 
letter  which  he  had  written  to  his  mother  assuring  her  that 
thus  far  he  was  safe,  and  when  it  was  shown  him  how  this 
same  envelope  was  self-sealing,  a little  moisture  being  applied 
by  the  tongue,  his  presence  of  mind  did  not  for  an  instant 
forsake  him,  and  he  blandly  requested  the  other  teacher  to  do 
the  sealing,  as  he  was  not  expert  at  it. 

It  is  this  frame  of  mind  which  leads  to  the  persistent  notions 
in  regard  to  Chinese  books  printed  by  foreigners.  There  is  a 
widespread  conviction  that  they  are  drugged,  and  the  smell  of 


262 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


printer’s  ink  is  frequently  identified  as  that  of  the  “ bewildering 
drug  ” which  is  embodied  in  their  composition.  Sometimes 
one  hears  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  read  one  of  these  books, 
and  forthwith  he  is  a slave  to  foreigners.  A slightly  different 
point  of  view  was  that  taken  by  a lad  of  whom  we  have  heard, 
who,  having  read  a little  way  in  one  of  these  tracts,  threw  it 
down  in  terror  and  ran  home,  telling  his  friends  that  if  one 
should  read  that  book  and  tell  a lie,  he  would  inevitably  go  to 
hell!  Sometimes  colporteurs  have  found  it  impossible  to  give 
away  these  books,  not,  as  might  be  supposed,  because  of  any 
hostility  to  the  contents,  of  which  nothing  was  known  and  for 
which  nothing  was  cared,  but  because  it  was  feared  that  the 
gift  would  be  made  the  basis  on  which  to  levy  a kind  of 
blackmail,  in  a manner  with  which  the  Chinese  are  only  too 
familiar. 

The  same  presupposition  leads  to  a panic  if  a foreigner 
injudiciously  attempts  to  take  down  the  names  of  Chinese 
children,  a simple  process  which  has  been  known  to  be  emi- 
nently successful  in  breaking  up  a prospective  school.  The 
system  of  romanising  Chinese  characters  must  in  its  initial 
stages  meet  this  objection  and  suspicion.  Why  should  a for- 
eigner wish  to  teach  his  pupils  to  write  in  such  a way  that 
their  friends  at  home  cannot  read  what  they  say?  All  the 
explanations  in  the  world  will  not  suffice  to  make  this  clear  to 
a suspicious  old  Chinese  who  knows  that  what  has  been  good 
enough  for  the  generations  that  have  come  before  his  children 
is  good  enough  for  them,  and  much  better  than  the  invention 
of  some  foreigner  of  unknown  antecedents.  It  may  almost 
be  said  that  a general  objection  is  entertained  to  anything 
which  a foreigner  proposes,  and  often  for  the  apparent  reason 
that  he  proposes  it.  The  trait  of  “ flexible  inflexibility  ” leads 
your  Chinese  friend  to  assure  you  in  the  blandest  but  most 
unmistakable  terms,  that  your  proposal  is  very  admirable  and 
very  preposterous. 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


263 


Sarcasm  is  a weapon  which,  in  the  hands  of  a foreigner,  is 
not  at  all  to  the  taste  of  the  Chinese.  A foreigner  whose 
knowledge  of  Chinese  was  by  no  means  equal  to  the  demands 
whidh  he  wished  to  make  upon  it,  in  a fit  of  deep  disgust  at 
some  sin  of  omission  or  commission  on  the  part  of  one  of  his 
servants,  called  him  in  English  a “ humbug.”  “ Deep  rankled 
in  his  side  the  fatal  dart,”  and  at  the  earliest  opportunity  the 
servant  begged  of  a lady  whose  Chinese  was  fully  equal  to  the 
tax  upon  it,  to  be  told  what  the  dreadful  word  meant  which 
had  been  thus  applied  to  him.  The  mandarins  who  seized 
upon  the  blocks  of  Mr.  Thom’s  translation  of  “^Esop’s  Fables” 
were  in  the  same  frame  of  mind  as  the  Peking  servant.  These 
officials  could  not  help  perceiving  in  the  talking  geese,  tigers, 
foxes,  and  lions  some  recondite  meaning  which  could  be  best 
nipped  in  the  bud  by  suppressing  the  entire  edition. 

Some  of  the  most  persistent  instances  of  Chinese  suspicion 
towards  foreigners  are  manifested  in  connection  with  the  many 
hospitals  and  dispensaries  now  scattered  over  so  large  a part 
of  China.  Amid  the  vast  number  of  patients  there  are  many 
who  exhibit  an  implicit  faith  and  a touching  confidence  in  the 
good-will  and  the  skill  of  the  foreign  physician.  But  there 
are  many  others,  of  whose  feelings  we  know  much  less,  except 
as  the  result  of  careful  inquiry,  who  continue  to  believe  the 
most  irrational  rumours  in  regard  to  the  extraction  of  eyes  and 
hearts  for  medicine,  the  irresistible  propensity  of  the  surgeon 
to  reduce  his  patients  to  mince-meat,  and  the  fearful  disposi- 
tion said  to  be  made  of  Chinese  children  in  the  depths  of  for- 
eign cellars.  A year  or  two  of  experience  of  the  widespread 
benefits  of  such  an  institution  might  be  expected  to  dissipate 
such  idle  rumours  as  the  wind  disperses  a mist ; but  they  con- 
tinue to  flourish  side  by  side  with  tens  of  thousands  of  success- 
ful treatments,  as  mould  thrives  in  warm  damp  spots  during 
the  month  of  August. 

The  whole  history  of  foreign  intercourse  with  China  is  a 


264 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


history  of  suspicion  and  prevarication  on  the  part  of  the  Chi- 
nese, while  it  doubtless  has  not  been  free  from  grave  faults  on 
the  side  of  foreigners.  It  is  a weary  history  to  retrace,  and  its 
lessons  may  be  relegated  to  those  who  are  charged  with  the 
often  thankless  task  of  conducting  such  negotiations.  But  as 
it  often  happens  that  private  persons  are  obliged  to  be  their 
own  diplomats  in  China,  it  is  well  to  know  how  it  should 
be  done.  We  will  give  a sample  case  which  is  an  excellent 
illustration.  The  question  was  about  the  renting  of  some 
premises  in  an  interior  city,  to  which  a local  official  on  various 
grounds  took  exception.  The  foreigner  presented  himself  at 
the  interview  which  had  been  arranged,  clad  in  the  Chinese 
dress,  and  armed  with  the  necessary  materials  for  writing. 
After  the  preliminary  conversation  the  foreigner  slowly  opened 
his  writing  materials,  adjusted  his  paper,  shook  out  his  pen, 
examined  his  ink,  with  an  air  of  intense  preoccupation.  The 
Chinese  official  was  watching  this  performance  with  the  keenest 
interest  and  the  liveliest  curiosity.  “ What  are  you  doing  ? ” 
he  inquired.  The  foreigner  explained  that  he  was  simply 
getting  his  writing  materials  in  order — “ only  that  and  nothing 
more.”  “Writing  materials!  What  for?”  “To  take  down 
your  answers,”  was  the  reply.  The  official  hastened  to  assure 
his  foreign  guest  that  this  extremity  would  by  no  means  be 
called  for,  as  the  premises  could  be  secured!  How  could  this 
magistrate  be  sure  where  he  should  next  hear  of  this  mysteri- 
ous document,  the  contents  of  which  he  could  not  possibly 
know? 

China  is  a country  which  abounds  in  wild  rumours,  often  of 
a character  to  fill  the  heart  with  dread.  Within  the  past  few 
years  such  a state  of  things  has  been  reported  among  the 
Chinese  in  Singapore  that  coolies  positively  refused  to  travel  a 
certain  street  after  dark,  on  account  of  the  imminent  danger 
of  having  their  heads  suddenly  and  mysteriously  cut  off.  The 
Empire  is  probably  never  free  from  such  epochs  of  horror ; to 


MUTUAL  SUSPICION 


265 


those  concerned  the  terrors  are  as  real  as  those  of  the  French 
Revolution  to  the  Parisians  of  1789.  Infinite  credulity  and 
mutual  suspicion  are  the  elements  of  the  soil  in  which  these 
fearful  rumours  thrive,  and  on  which  they  fatten.  When  they 
have  to  do  with  foreigners,  long  and  painful  experience  has 
shown  that  they  must  not  be  despised,  but  must  be  taken  in 
the  early  stages  of  their  development.  None  of  them  could 
do  serious  harm  if  the  local  officials  were  only  sincerely  inter- 
ested to  stamp  them  out.  In  their  ultimate  outcome,  when 
they  have  been  suffered  to  grow  unchecked,  these  rumours 
result  in  such  atrocities  as  the  Tientsin  massacre.  All  parts  of 
China  are  well  adapted  to  their  rapid  development,  and  there 
is  scarcely  a province  where  they  have  not  in  some  form  oc- 
curred. For  the  complete  removal  of  these  outbreaks,  the 
time  element  is  as  necessary  as  for  the  results  of  geologic 
epochs.  The  best  way  to  prevent  their  occurrence  is  to  con- 
vince the  Chinese,  by  irrefragable  object-lessons,  that  foreign- 
ers are  the  sincere  well-wishers  of  the  Chinese.  This  simple 
proposition  once  firmly  established,  then  for  the  first  time  will 
it  be  true  that  “ within  the  four  seas,  all  are  brethren.” 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY. 


HE  Chinese  ideograph  which  is  commonly  translated 


X “sincerity”  is  composed  of  the  radicals  denoting  man 
and  words.  Its  meaning  lies  upon  the  surface.  It  is  the  last 
in  the  series  of  the  Five  Constant  Virtues  enumerated  by  the 
Chinese,  and  in  the  opinion  of  many  who  are  well  acquainted 
with  them  it  is  in  fact  about  the  last  virtue  which  in  the  Celes- 
tial Empire  is  likely  to  be  met  with  on  any  considerable  scale. 
Many  who  know  the  Chinese  will  agree  with  the  observation 
of  Professor  Kidd,  who,  after  speaking  of  the  Chinese  doc- 
trine of  “ sincerity,”  continues : “ But  if  this  virtue  had  been 
chosen  as  a national  characteristic,  not  only  to  be  set  at  de- 
fiance in  practice,  but  to  form  the  most  striking  contrast  to 
existing  manners,  a more  appropriate  one  than  sincerity  could 
not  have  been  found.  So  opposed  is  the  public  and  private 
character  of  the  Chinese  to  genuine  sincerity,  that  an  enemy 
might  have  selected  it  as  ironically  descriptive  of  their  con- 
duct in  contrast  with  their  pretensions.  Falsehood,  duplic- 
ity, insincerity,  and  obsequious  accommodation  to  favourable 
circumstances  are  national  features  remarkably  prominent.” 
How  far  this  judgment  is  justified  by  the  facts  of  Chinese  life 
we  may  be  able  better  to  decide  when  we  shall  have  consid- 
ered those  facts  in  detail. 

We  have  assumed  that  it  is  a reasonable  theory,  and  one 
which  we  believe  is  supported  by  the  opinion  of  competent 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


267 


scholars,  that  the  Chinese  of  the  present  day  do  not  differ  to 
any  great  extent  from  the  Chinese  of  antiquity.  There  can 
hardly  be  a doubt  that  the  standard  of  the  Chinese  and  the 
present  standard  of  Western  nations  as  to  what  ought  to  be 
called  sincerity  differ  widely.  He  who  peruses  the  Chinese 
Classics  with  a discerning  eye  will  be  able  to  read  between 
the  lines  much  indirection,  prevarication,  and  falsehood  which 
are  not  distinctly  expressed.  He  will  also  find  the  Chinese 
opinion  of  Occidental  openness  condensed  into  the  significant 
expression,  “ Straightforwardness  without  the  rules  of  propri- 
ety becomes  rudeness.”  To  an  Occidental  there  is  a signifi- 
cance in  the  incident  related  of  Confucius  and  J u-pei,  as  found 
in  the  Confucian  “Analects,”  which  is  not  at  all  apprehensible 
to  a Confucianist.  The  following  is  the  passage,  from  Legge’s 
translation:  “ Ju-pei  washed  to  see  Confucius,  but  Confucius 
declined  to  see  him  on  the  ground  of  being  sick.  When  the 
bearer  of  this  message  went  out  at  the  door,  Confucius  took 
his  harpsichord,  and  sang  to  it,  in  order  that  Ju-pei  might 
hear.”  The  object  of  Confucius  was  to  avoid  the  disagree- 
able task  of  saying  that  the  character  of  Ju-pei  was  not  such 
that  Confucius  washed  to  meet  him,  and  he  took  this  charac- 
teristically Chinese  way  to  do  it. 

The  example  of  Confucius  in  this  matter  was  followed  by 
Mencius.  Being  a guest  in  a certain  kingdom  he  was  invited 
to  court,  but  hoping  that  the  king  would  honour  him  by  the 
first  call,  Mencius  alleged  sickness,  and  the  next  day,  to  show 
that  this  was  a mere  excuse  made  a call  elsewhere.  The 
officer  with  wffiom  Mencius  spent  the  night  held  a long  con- 
versation with  the  Sage  as  to  the  merits  of  this  proceeding, 
but  the  discussion  between  them  turns  exclusively  on  the  ques- 
tion of  propriety  and  precedent,  and  no  reference  whatever  to 
the  morality  of  lying  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  There  is 
no  apparent  reason  to  suppose  that  this  point  was  ever  thought 
of  by  any  of  the  persons  concerned,  any  more  than  it  is  by  a 


268 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


modem  Confucian  teacher  who  explains  the  passage  to  his 
pupils. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  ancient  Chinese  were  far  in 
advance  of  their  contemporaries  in  many  other  lands  in  the 
instinct  of  preserving  records  of  the  past.  Their  histories, 
however  prolix,  are  undoubtedly  comprehensive.  Many  West- 
ern writers  seem  to  feel  the  greatest  admiration  for  Chinese 
histories,  and  place  unrestricted  confidence  in  their  statements. 
The  following  paragraph  is  taken  from  an  essay  by  Dr.  J. 
Singer,  lector  of  the  University  of  Vienna,  translated  and  pub- 
lished in  the  China  Review , July,  1888:  “Scientific  criticism 
has  long  ago  recognised  and  in  ever-increasing  extent  proved 
the  historical  reliability  of  the  ancient  documents  of  China. 
Richthofen,  for  instance,  the  latest  and  most  thorough-going 
explorer  of  China,  in  discussing  the  surprisingly  contradictory 
elements  which  make  up  the  character  of  the  Chinese  as  a 
people,  contrasts  their  strict  truthfulness  in  recording  historical 
events  and  their  earnestness  in  the  search  for  correct  knowl- 
edge, whenever  statistical  facts  are  concerned,  with  that  abso- 
lute and  generally  sanctioned  license  in  lying  and  dissimulation 
which  prevails  everywhere  in  China,  in  popular  intercourse 
and  in  diplomatic  negotiations.”  It  should  be  borne  distinctly 
in  mind  that  historical  accuracy  may  be  exhibited  in  two 
widely  different  lines : the  narration  of  events  in  due  order 
and  proportion,  and  the  explanation  of  those  events  by  an 
analysis  of  character  and  motives.  It  is  said  by  those  who 
have  looked  into  Chinese  histories  most  extensively,  that 
while  in  the  former  particular  these  works  are  no  doubt  far  in 
advance  of  the  times  in  which  they  were  written,  in  the  latter 
particular  they  are  by  no  means  adapted  to  carry  the  impres- 
sion of  that  scrupulosity  which  Dr.  Singer  supposes.  Without 
expressing  any  opinion  on  a subject  of  which  we  have  no  spe- 
cial knowledge,  we  will  merely  call  attention  to  the  singular, 
if  not  unprecedented,  circumstance  that  a nation  which  is 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


269 


affirmed  to  indulge  in  a license  for  lying,  can  at  the  same  time 
furnish  successive  generations  of  historiographers  who  are 
reverent  of  the  truth.  Do  not  the  same  passions  which  have 
distorted  the  history  of  other  lands  operate  in  China?  Do 
not  the  same  causes  produce  in  China  the  same  effects  as  in 
the  rest  of  the  world  ? 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  not  only  is  the  teaching 
of  Confucianism  greatly  defective  in  the  particular  noted,  but 
the  practice  of  the  great  Master  himself  is  not  such  as  to  com- 
mend historical  fidelity.  Dr.  Legge,  who  does  not  lay  much 
stress  on  “ certain  charges  which  have  been  made  from  un- 
important incidents  in  the  Sage’s  career,”  attaches  great 
importance  to  the  manner  in  which  Confucius  handled  his 
materials  in  the  “ Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,”  a work  which 
contains  the  record  of  the  kingdom  of  Lu  for  two  hundred 
and  forty-two  years,  down  to  within  two  years  of  Confucius’ 
death.  The  following  paragraphs  are  taken  from  Dr.  Legge’s 
lecture  on  Confucianism,  published  in  his  volume  on  ‘‘The 
Religions  of  China  ” : “ Mencius  regarded  the  Ch‘un  Ch'iu 
[“  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals  ”]  as  the  greatest  of  the  Mas- 
ters achievements,  and  says  that  its  appearance  struck  terror 
into  rebellious  ministers  and  unfilial  sons.  The  author  him- 
self had  a similar  opinion  of  it,  and  said  that  it  was  from  it 
men  would  know  him,  and  also  (some  of  them)  condemn  him. 
Was  his  own  heart  misgiving  him  when  he  thus  spoke  of  men 
condemning  him  for  the  Ctiun  Ch'iu  ? The  fact  is  that  the 
annals  are  astonishingly  meagre,  and  not  only  so,  but  evasive 
and  deceptive.  ‘The  Ch'un  Ch'iu'  says  Rung  Yang,  who 
commented  on  it,  and  supplemented  it  within  a century  after 
its  composition,  ‘ conceals  [the  truth]  out  of  regard  to  the  high 
in  rank,  to  kinship,  and  to  men  of  worth.’  And  I have  shown 
in  the  fifth  volume  of  my  ‘ Chinese  Classics  ’ that  this  ‘ con- 
cealing ’ covers  all  the  ground  embraced  in  our  three  English 
words — ignoring,  concealing,  and  misrepresenting.  What 


270 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


shall  we  say  to  these  things  ? . . . I often  wish  that  I could 
cut  the  knot  by  denying  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  ‘ Spring  and  Autumn  ’ as  we  now  have  it ; but  the  chain 
of  evidence  that  binds  it  to  the  hand  and  pencil  of  Confucius 
in  the  close  of  his  life  is  very  strong.  And  if  a foreign  student 
take  so  violent  a method  to  enable  him  to  look  at  the  charac- 
ter of  the  philosopher  without  this  flaw  of  historical  untruthful- 
ness, the  governors  of  China  and  the  majority  of  its  scholars 
will  have  no  sympathy  with  him,  and  no  compassion  for  his 
mental  distress.  Truthfulness  was  one  of  the  subjects  that 
Confucius  often  insisted  on  with  his  disciples ; but  the  Ch'un 
CJTiu  has  led  his  countrymen  to  conceal  the  truth  from  them- 
selves and  others  wherever  they  think  it  would  injuriously 
affect  the  reputation  of  the  Empire  or  of  its  sages.” 

We  have  just  seen  that  those  who  claim  truthfulness  for  the 
Chinese  in  their  histories  are  ready  enough  to  admit  that  in 
China  truth  is  confined  to  histories.  It  is  of  course  impossible 
to  prove  that  every  Chinese  will  lie,  and  we  have  no  wish  to 
do  so  if  it  were  possible.  The  strongest  testimony  on  this 
point  can  be  gathered  from  the  Chinese  themselves,  whenever 
their  consciences  have  been  sufficiently  awakened  and  their 
attention  directed  to  the  matter.  Such  persons  are  frequently 
heard  to  say  of  their  race,  as  the  South  Sea  Island  chief  said 
of  his:  “As  soon  as  we  open  our  mouths  a lie  is  bom.”  To 
us,  however,  it  does  not  seem  that  the  Chinese  lie  for  the  sake 
of  lying,  as  some  have  supposed,  but  mainly  for  the  sake  of 
certain  advantages  not  otherwise  to  be  had.  “ Incapable  of 
speaking  the  truth,”  says  Mr.  Baber,  “ they  are  equally  in- 
capable of  believing  it.”  A friend  of  the  writer  received  a 
visit  from  a Chinese  lad  who  had  learned  English,  and  who 
wished  to  add  to  his  vocabulary  an  expression  meaning  “You 
lie.”  He  was  told  the  phrase,  but  cautioned  not  to  use  it  to 
a foreigner,  as  the  result  would  certainly  be  that  he  would 
be  knocked  down.  He  expressed  unfeigned  surprise  at  this 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


271 


strange  announcement,  for  to  his  mind  the  words  conveyed  a 
meaning  as  harmless  as  the  remark,  “You  are  humbugging 
me.”  Mr.  Cooke,  the  China  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times  in  1857,  speaking  of  the  antipathy  of  Occidentals  to  be 
called  bars,  observes : “ But  if  you  say  the  same  thing  to  a 
Chinaman,  you  arouse  in  him  no  sense  of  outrage,  no  sen- 
timent of  degradation.  He  does  not  deny  the  fact.  His 
answer  is,  ‘ 1 should  not  dare  to  lie  to  your  Excellency.’  To 
say  to  a Chinaman,  ‘You  are  an  habitual  liar,  and  you  are 
meditating  a lie  at  this  moment,’  is  like  saying  to  an  English- 
man, ‘You  are  a confirmed  punster,  and  I am  satisfied  you 
have  some  horrible  pun  in  your  head  at  this  moment.’  ” 

The  ordinary  speech  of  the  Chinese  is  so  full  of  insincerity, 
which  yet  does  not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  falsehood,  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  learn  the  truth  in  almost  any  case.  In  China 
it  is  literally  true  that  a fact  is  the  hardest  thing  in  the  world 
to  get.  One  never  feels  sure  that  he  has  been  told  the  whole 
of  anything.  Even  where  a person  is  seeking  your  help,  as, 
for  example,  in  a lawsuit,  and  wishes  to  put  his  case  entirely 
in  your  hands,  nothing  is  more  probable  than  that  you  will 
discover  subsequently  that  several  important  particulars  have 
been  suppressed,  apparently  from  the  general  instinct  of  pre- 
varication and  not  of  malice  prepense,  since  the  person  him- 
self must  be  the  only  loser  by  the  suppression.  The  whole  of 
anything  does  not  come  out  till  afterwards,  no  matter  at  what 
point  you  take  it  up.  A person  who  is  well  acquainted  with 
the  Chinese  will  not  feel  that  he  understands  a matter  because 
he  has  heard  all  about  it,  but  will  rather  take  the  items  which 
he  has  heard  and  combine  them  with  others,  and  finally  call  a 
council  of  the  Chinese  whom  he  trusts  most  and  hold  a kind 
of  inquest  over  these  alleged  facts  to  ascertain  what  their  real 
bearing  probably  is. 

Lack  of  sincerity,  combined  with  the  suspicion  which  has 
been  already  discussed,  accounts  for  the  fact  that  a Chinese 


272 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


will  often  talk  for  a very  great  length  of  time,  saying  practi- 
cally nothing  whatever.  Much  of  the  incomprehensibility  of 
the  Chinese,  so  far  as  foreigners  are  concerned,  is  due  to  their 
insincerity.  We  cannot  be  sure  what  they  are  after.  We 
always  feel  that  there  is  more  behind.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  when  a Chinese  comes  to  you  and  whispers  to  you  mys- 
teriously something  about  another  Chinese  in  whom  you  are 
much  interested,  you  are  not  unlikely  to  experience  a sink- 
ing sensation  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  You  are  uncertain 
whether  the  one  who  is  speaking  is  telling  the  truth,  or  whether 
the  character  of  the  one  of  whom  he  is  speaking,  has  caved  in. 
One  never  has  any  assurance  that  a Chinese  ultimatum  is  ulti- 
mate. This  proposition,  so  easily  stated,  contains  in  itself  the 
germ  of  multitudinous  anxieties  for  the  trader,  the  traveller, 
and  the  diplomatist. 

The  real  reason  for  anything  is  hardly  ever  to  be  expected, 
and  even  when  it  has  been  given,  one  cannot  be  sure  of  this 
fact.  Every  Chinese,  the  uneducated  not  less  than  others,  is 
by  nature  a kind  of  cuttle-fish  capable  of  distilling  any  amount 
of  turbid  ink,  into  which  he  can  retreat  with  the  utmost  safety 
so  far  as  pursuit  is  concerned.  If  you  are  interviewed  on  a 
journey  and  invited  to  contribute  to  the  travelling-expenses  of 
some  impecunious  individual  who  hopes  to  exploit  a new  field, 
your  attendant  does  not  say,  as  you  would  do,  "Your  ex- 
penses are  none  of  my  affair,  begone  with  you!”  but  "with 
a smile  that  is  child-like  and  bland,”  he  explains  that  your 
allowance  of  money  is  barely  sufficient  for  your  own  use,  and 
so  you  will  be  deprived  of  the  pleasure  of  contributing  to  your 
fellow-traveller.  We  have  seldom  met  a Chinese  gate-keeper 
who  would  say  to  a Chinese  crowd,  as  a foreigner  tells  him  to 
do,  “You  cannot  come  in  here,”  but  he  will  observe  instead, 
that  they  must  not  come  in,  because  the  big  dog  will  bite  them 
if  they  do. 

There  are  few  Chinese  who  have  any  well-developed  con- 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


27  3 


science  on  the  subject  of  keeping  an  engagement.  This  char- 
acteristic is  connected  with  their  talent  for  misunderstanding, 
and  with  their  disregard  of  time.  But  whatever  the  real  reason 
for  the  failure,  it  is  interesting  to  see  what  a variety  of  alleged 
reasons  exist  for  it.  The  Chinese  in  general  resemble  the  man 
who,  being  accused  of  having  broken  his  promise,  replied  that 
it  was  of  no  consequence,  as  he  could  make  another  just  as 
good.  If  it  is  a fault  for  which  he  is  reproved,  promises  of 
amendment  flow  in  limpid  streams  from  his  lips.  His  acknowl- 
edgments of  wrong  are  complete — in  fact,  too  complete,  and 
leave  nothing  to  be  desired  but  sincerity. 

A Chinese  teacher  who  was  employed  in  inditing  and  com- 
menting upon  Chinese  aphorisms,  after  writing  down  a fine 
sentiment  of  the  ancients,  made  an  annotation  to  the  effect 
that  one  should  never  refuse  a request  in  an  abrupt  manner, 
but  should,  on  the  contrary,  grant  it  in  form,  although  with 
no  intention  to  do  so  in  substance.  “ Put  him  off  till  to-mor- 
row, and  then  until  another  to-morrow.  Thus,”  he  remarked 
in  his  note,  “you  comfort  his  heart!  ” So  far  as  we  know 
the  principle  here  avowed  is  the  one  which  is  generally  acted 
upon  by  the  Chinese  who  have  debts  for  which  payment  is 
, sought.  No  one  expects  to  collect  his  debt  at  the  time  that 
he  applies  for  it,  and  he  is  not  disappointed ; but  he  is  told 
most  positively  that  he  will  get  it  the  next  time,  and  the  next, 
and  the  next. 

One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  native  insincerity  of  the 
Chinese  is  most  characteristically  manifested  is  their  demean- 
our towards  children,  who  are  taught  to  be  insincere  without 
consciousness  of  the  fact  either  on  their  own  part  or  on  the 
part  of  those  who  teach  them.  Before  he  is  old  enough  to 
talk,  and  when  he  can  attach  only  the  vaguest  significance  to 
the  words  which  he  hears,  a child  is  told  that  unless  he  does 
as  he  is  bid  some  terrific  object,  said  to  be  concealed  in  the 
sleeve  of  a grown  person,  will  catch  him.  It  is  not  uncom- 


274 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


mon  for  foreigners  to  be  put  in  the  place  of  the  unknown  mon- 
ster, and  this  fact  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  all 
the  bad  words  which  we  frequently  hear  applied  to  ourselves. 
Why  should  not  children  who  may  have  been  affrighted  with 
our  vague  terrors  when  they  were  young,  hoot  us  in  the  streets 
as  soon  as  they  have  grown  large  enough  to  perceive  that  we 
are  not  dangerous  but  only  ridiculous? 

The  carter  who  is  annoyed  by  the  urchins  in  the  street  yell- 
ing after  his  foreign  passenger,  shouts  to  them  that  he  will  cap- 
ture several  of  them,  tie  them  on  behind  his  cart  and  carry 
them  off.  The  boatman  under  like  provocation  contents  him- 
self with  the  observation  that  he  will  pour  scalding  water 
upon  them.  The  expressions,  “ I’ll  beat  you,”  “ I’ll  kill  you,” 
are  understood  by  a Chinese  child  of  some  experience  to  con- 
stitute an  ellipsis  for  “ Stop  that ! ” 

There  is  in  Chinese  a whole  vocabulary  of  words  which  are 
indispensable  to  one  who  wishes  to  pose  as  a “ polite  ” person, 
words  in  which  whatever  belongs  to  the  speaker  is  treated 
with  scorn  and  contempt,  and  whatever  relates  to  the  person 
addressed  is  honourable.  The  "polite”  Chinese  will  refer  to 
his  wife,  if  driven  to  the  extremity  of  referring  to  her  at  all,  as 
his  “ dull  thorn,”  or  in  some  similar  elegant  figure  of  speech, 
while  the  rustic,  who  grasps  at  the  substance  of  “politeness,” 
although  ignorant  of  its  formal  expression,  perhaps  alludes 
to  the  companion  of  his  joys  and  sorrows  as  his  “stinking 
woman.”  This  trait  of  Chinese  etiquette  is  not  inaptly  pre- 
sented in  one  of  their  own  tales,  in  which  a visitor  is  repre- 
sented as  calling  clad  in  his  best  robes,  and  seated  in  the 
reception-room  awaiting  the  arrival  of  his  host.  A rat  which 
had  been  disporting  itself  upon  the  beams  above,  insinuating 
its  nose  into  a jar  of  oil  which  was  put  there  for  safe-keeping, 
frightened  at  the  sudden  intrusion  of  the  caller,  ran  away,  and 
in  so  doing  upset  the  oil-jar,  which  fell  directly  on  the  caller, 
striking  him  a severe  blow,  and  ruining  his  elegant  garments 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


275 


with  the  saturation  of  the  oil.  Just  as  the  face  of  the  guest 
was  purple  with  rage  at  this  disaster,  the  host  entered,  when 
the  proper  salutations  were  performed,  after  which  the  guest 
proceeded  to  explain  the  situation.  “As  I entered  your 
honourable  apartment  and  seated  myself  under  your  honour- 
able beam,  I inadvertently  terrified  your  honourable  rat,  which 
fled  and  upset  your  honourable  oil-jar  upon  my  mean  and  in- 
significant clothing,  which  is  the  reason  of  my  contemptible 
appearance  in  your  honourable  presence.” 

That  very  few  foreigners  can  ever  bring  themselves  to  give 
Chinese  invitations  in  a Chinese  way,  goes  without  saying.  It 
requires  long  practice  to  bow  cordially  to  a Chinese  crowd  as 
one  goes  to  a meal,  and  remark  blandly,  “ Please  all  sit  down 
and  eat,”  or  to  sweep  a cup  of  tea  in  a semicircle  just  as  it  is 
raised  to  the  lips,  and,  addressing  one’s  self  to  the  multitude, 
observe  with  gravity,  “ Please  all  drink.”  Not  less  real  is  the 
moral  difficulty  of  exclaiming  at  suitable  situations,  “TC'o-Fou, 
k'o-t'ou ,”  signifying,  “ I can,  may,  must,  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  ” (as  the  case  may  be)  “ give  you  a prostration  ” ; or 
of  occasionally  interjecting  the  observation,  “I  ought  to  be 
beaten,  I ought  to  be  killed,”  meaning  that  I have  offended 
against  some  detail  of  the  rules  of  etiquette ; or  of  stopping  in 
the  midst  of  a horseback  ride,  upon  meeting  a casual  acquaint- 
ance, and  proposing  to  him,  “I  -will  get  off  and  you  shall 
mount,”  quite  irrespective  of  the  direction  in  which  you  may 
be  travelling,  or  the  general  irrationality  of  the  procedure. 
Yet  the  most  ignorant  and  uncultivated  Chinese  will  frequently 
give  these  invitations  with  an  air,  which,  as  already  remarked, 
extorts  admiration  from  the  most  unsympathetic  Occidental, 
who  pays  the  unconscious  tribute  of  him  who  cannot  to  him 
who  can.  Such  little  ceremonies,  as  we  have  had  repeated 
occasion  to  observe,  are  enforced  contributions  on  the  part  of 
individuals  to  society  at  large,  that  friction  may  be  diminished, 
and  he  who  refuses  to  contribute  will  be  punished  in  a man- 


276 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ner  not  the  less  real  because  it  is  oblique.  Thus  a carter  who 
neglects  to  take  his  cue  down  from  his  head  and  descend  from 
his  cart  when  he  has  occasion  to  inquire  the  way,  will  not 
improbably  be  given  a wrong  direction,  and  reviled  besides. 

To  be  able  to  determine  what  is  the  proper  thing  to  be 
done  when  Orientals  offer  presents,  is  in  itself  a science,  and 
perhaps  as  much  so  in  China  as  in  other  countries.  Some 
things  must  not  be  accepted  at  all,  while  others  must  not  be 
altogether  refused,  and  there  is  generally  a broad  debatable 
land,  in  regard  to  which  a foreigner  can  be  sure  of  nothing 
except  that,  left  to  his  own  judgment,  he  will  almost  infallibly 
do  the  wrong  thing.  In  general,  offers  of  presents  are  to  be 
suspected,  especially  those  which  are  in  any  particular  extraor- 
dinary. Of  this  class  are  those  which  are  tendered  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  birth  of  a son,  in  reference  to  which  the  classical 
dictum,  “ I fear  the  Greeks,  even  bearing  gifts,”  is  universally 
and  perennially  appropriate.  There  is  always  something  be- 
hind such  an  offer,  and,  as  the  homely  Chinese  proverb  says 
of  a rat  dragging  a shovel,  the  “ larger  end  is  the  one  that 
is  behind,”  or,  in  other  words,  what  is  (virtually)  required  in 
return  is  much  greater  than  what  is  given. 

Of  the  hollowness  of  these  offers  many  foreigners  in  China 
have  had  experience.  We  have  ourselves  had  occasion  to  be 
but  too  familiar  with  the  details  of  a case  in  which  a theatrical 
exhibition  was  offered  to  a few  foreigners  by  a Chinese  village, 
as  a mark  of  respect,  of  course  with  the  implied  understanding 
that  it  should  be  duly  acknowledged  by  suitable  feasts.  When 
this  honour  was  definitely  declined,  it  was  proposed  to  devote 
the  funds,  or  rather  a small  part  of  them,  to  the  construction 
of  a building  for  public  use,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  first 
village,  was  actually  done.  No  sooner  was  this  agreed  upon 
than  eleven  other  villages,  also  deeply  smitten  with  gratitude 
for  famine  relief  and  medical  help,  proceeded  to  send  deputa- 
tions to  make  on  their  part  formal  offers  of  theatrical  exhibi- 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


277 


tions,  which  they  were  perfectly  aware  would  be  and  must  be 
declined.  The  representatives  of  each  village  received  the 
intelligence  of  the  refusal  of  these  honours  with  the  same  sad 
surprise,  each  of  them  offered  to  divert  the  funds  in  question 
to  the  public  building  already  referred  to,  and  each  one  of 
them  allowed  the  matter  to  drop  at  that  point,  and  no  further 
reference  whatever  wras  ever  made  to  it  by  any  one  of  them ! 

It  is  not  foreigners  only  who  are  beset  in  this  way.  Rich 
Chinese  who  have  had  the  misfortune  to  be  made  happy,  are 
sometimes  visited  by  their  neighbours  with  congratulatory  gifts 
of  a trifling  character,  such  as  toys  for  a new-born  heir,  pres- 
ents the  total  value  of  which  is  practically  nothing,  but  which 
must  be  acknowledged  by  a feast — the  invariable  and  always 
appropriate  Chinese  response.  It  is  on  occasions  like  this 
that  the  most  inexpert  in  Chinese  affairs  learns  to  appreciate 
the  accuracy  of  the  Chinese  aphorism,  which  observes,  “ When 
one  is  eating  one’s  own,  he  eats  till  the  tears  come ; but  when 
he  is  eating  the  food  of  others,  he  eats  till  the  perspiration 
flows.”  It  frequently  happens  under  such  conditions  that  the 
host  is  obliged  to  assume  the  most  cordial  appearance  of  wel- 
come, when  he  is  inwardly  fuming  with  rage  which  cannot 
possibly  be  expressed  without  the  loss  of  his  “ face,”  which 
would  be  even  more  deadly  than  the  loss  of  the  food. 

This  suggests  that  large  class  of  expressions  which  come 
under  the  general  designation  of  “ face-talk.”  That  much  of 
the  external  decorum  with  which  foreigners  are  treated  by 
Chinese  in  their  employ,  especially  in  large  cities,  is  a mere 
external  veneer,  is  easily  seen  by  contrasting  the  behaviour  of 
the  same  persons  in  public  and  in  private.  It  is  said  that  a 
Chinese  teacher  who  is  a model  of  the  proprieties  at  his  for- 
eign master’s  house,  is  not  unlikely  to  “ cut  him  dead  ” if  he 
meets  the  same  master  on  the  streets  of  Peking,  for  the  reason 
that  to  notice  him  at  that  time  would  lead  to  a public  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  pundit  is  in  some  way  in- 


278 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


debted  to  the  foreign  barbarian  for  replenishing  the  rice-bowl 
of  the  Chinese — a circumstance  which,  however  notorious, 
must  not  be  formally  admitted,  especially  in  public.  It  is  very 
common  for  a number  of  Chinese,  on  entering  a room  where 
there  is  a foreigner,  to  salute  all  the  Chinese  in  the  room  by 
turn,  and  totally  ignore  the  foreigner.  A Chinese  teacher  is 
not  unlikely  to  flatter  his  foreign  pupil  with  the  information 
that  his  ear  is  remarkably  correct  and  his  pronunciation  almost 
perfect,  and  that  he  will  soon  surpass  all  his  contemporaries  in 
the  acquisition  of  the  language,  while  at  the  very  same  time 
the  peculiar  errors  of  the  pupil  are  not  improbably  matter  of 
sport  between  the  teacher  and  his  companions.  In  general,  it 
may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  last  person  to  set  one  right 
in  matters  of  Chinese  speech  is  the  teacher  who  is  employed 
for  that  purpose. 

One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  formal  and  hollow  politeness 
of  the  Chinese  manifests  itself,  is  in  voluntary  offers  to  do  what 
it  is  very  desirable  should  be  done,  but  which  others  cannot  or 
will  not  undertake.  If  the  offer  comes  to  nothing  we  should 
not  be  disappointed,  for  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  made 
with  the  definite  knowledge  that  it  could  not  be  carried  out, 
but  the  “ face  ” of  the  friend  who  made  the  offer  is  assured. 
In  like  manner,  if  there  is  a dispute  as  to  the  amount  of  money 
to  be  paid  at  an  inn,  your  carter  will  probably  come  forward 
as  arbitrator,  and  decide  that  he  will  make  up  the  difference 
himself,  which  he  does  by  taking  the  amount  required  from 
your  cash-bag.  Or  if  he  were  to  pay  the  money  from  his  own 
funds,  he  would  bring  in  his  bill  for  the  same,  and  if  he  was 
reminded  that  he  offered  of  his  own  accord  to  make  it  up,  he 
would  reply,  “ Do  you  expect  the  man  who  attends  the  funeral 
to  be  buried  in  the  coffin  too?  ” 

There  is  a great  deal  of  real  modesty  in  China  notwith- 
standing appearances  to  the  contrary,  but  it  cannot  for  a mo- 
ment be  doubted  that  there  is  likewise  a great  deal  of  mock 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


279 


modesty,  both  on  the  part  of  men  and  of  women.  It  is  very 
common  to  hear  it  said  of  some  disagreeable  matter,  that  it  is 
wholly  unmentionable,  that  the  words  are  totally  unutterable, 
etc.,  when  all  parties  are  perfectly  aware  that  this  is  a mere 
form  denoting  reluctance  to  express  an  opinion.  The  very 
persons  who  use  this  high-toned  language  would  be  ready 
enough  to  employ  the  foulest  expressions  of  vituperation 
whenever  they  were  excited  by  anger. 

False  modesty  is  matched  by  a false  sympathy,  which  con- 
sists of  empty  words ; but  for  this  the  Chinese  are  not  to  be 
blamed,  as  they  have  no  adequate  material  out  of  which  sym- 
pathy for  others  can  be  developed  in  any  considerable  quanti- 
ties and  for  any  length  of  time.  But  empty  sympathy  is  not 
so  repugnant  to  good  taste  as  that  mockery  of  sympathy  and 
of  all  true  feeling  which  contemplates  death  with  boisterous 
merriment.  Mr.  Baber  mentions  a Szechuan  coolie  who  burst 
into  a delighted  laugh  at  the  spectacle  of  two  dogs  devour- 
ing a corpse  on  the  tow-path.  Mr.  Meadows  tells  us  that  his 
Chinese  teacher  laughed  till  he  held  his  sides  at  the  amusing 
death  of  his  most  constant  companion.  It  is  no  explanation 
of  these  strange  exhibitions,  often  observed  in  the  case  of 
parents  at  the  death  of  children  of  whom  they  were  fond,  that 
long  grief  has  dried  up  its  external  expression,  for  there  is  a 
wide  distinction  between  a silent  grief  and  that  rude  mockery 
of  natural  feeling  which  offends  the  instincts  of  mankind. 

It  is,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  remark,  several  hundred 
years  since  foreigners  began  to  have  commercial  relations 
with  the  Chinese.  There  have  been  multiplied  testimonies  to 
the  business  honesty  of  those  with  whom  these  relations  have 
been  held.  Without  generalising  to  a degree  which  might  be 
precarious,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  must  be  a good  basis  for 
testimonies  of  this  sort.  As  a specimen  of  what  these  testi- 
monies are,  we  may  quote  the  words  of  Mr.  Cameron,  Man- 
ager of  the  Hongkong  and  Shanghai  Bank,  on  occasion  of  his 


28o 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


farewell  to  Shanghai : " I have  referred  to  the  high  commer- 
cial standing  of  the  foreign  community.  The  Chinese  are  in 
no  way  behind  us  ourselves  in  that  respect ; in  fact,  I know  of 
no  people  in  the  world  I would  sooner  trust  than  the  Chinese 
merchant  and  banker.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions  to  every 
rule,  but  to  show  that  I have  good  reasons  for  making  such  a 
strong  statement,  I may  mention  that  for  the  last  twenty-five 
years  the  bank  has  been  doing  a very  large  business  with 
Chinese  in  Shanghai,  amounting,  I should  say,  to  hundreds  of 
millions  of  taels,  and  we  have  never  yet  met  with  a defaulting 
Chinaman.”  Perhaps  the  best  commentary  on  the  statement 
just  quoted  is  the  fact  that  within  three  years  after  it  was 
made,  a Chinese  compradore  of  the  same  bank  in  Hongkong 
so  crippled  it  by  losses  for  which  it  did  not  appear  that  there 
was  any  security  that  a million  dollars  were  subtracted  from 
the  annual  profits. 

Whether  there  is  an  essential  difference  between  Chinese 
business  as  conducted  by  wholesale  and  that  by  retail,  we 
have  no  means  of  knowing.  But  without  abating  in  the  least 
from  the  value  of  the  testimonies  to  which  reference  has  been 
made,  it  is  a fair  question  whether  a large  part  of  results  noted 
are  not  due  to  the  admirable  system  of  mutual  responsibility 
already  described — a system  which  Western  nations  would  do 
well  to  imitate.  It  is  only  natural  that  foreigners  doing  busi- 
ness with  the  Chinese  should  avail  themselves  to  the  fullest 
extent  of  such  commercial  safeguards  as  exist,  and  for  such 
results  as  are  thus  attained  the  Chinese  are  unquestionably 
entitled  to  the  fullest  credit.  Yet  after  all  such  acknowledg- 
ments are  made,  it  remains  true,  as  testified  by  a vast  array  of 
witnesses,  and  by  wide  and  long  observation,  that  the  com- 
merce of  the  Chinese  is  a gigantic  example  of  the  national 
insincerity. 

An  interesting  essay  has  been  written  bjr  one  who  knew  of 
what  he  was  affirming,  on  the  process  by  which  in  ordinary 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


281 


trade  two  Chinese  each  succeed  in  cheating  the  other.  The 
relation  of  two  such  individuals  is  generally  the  relation  be- 
tween Jacob  and  Laban,  or,  as  the  Chinese  phrase  runs,  it  is 
the  iron  brush  meeting  the  brass  wash-dish.  It  is  a popular 
proverb  that  to  put  a lad  into  trade  is  to  ruin  him.  False 
weights,  false  measures,  false  currency,  and  false  goods — these 
are  phenomena  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  escape  in  China. 
Even  in  the  great  establishments  which  put  up  conspicuous 
signs,  notifying  the  public  that  they  will  here  find  “ goods 
genuine,  prices  real,”  “ positively  no  two  prices,”  the  state  of 
things  does  not  correspond  to  the  surface  seeming. 

We  by  no  means  intend  to  affirm  such  a proposition  as  that 
there  is  no  honesty  to  be  found  in  China,  but  only  that,  so  far 
as  our  experience  and  observation  go,  it  is  literally  impossible 
to  be  sure  of  finding  it  anywhere.  How  can  it  be  otherwise 
with  a people  who  have  so  little  regard  for  truth?  A well- 
dressed  scholar  who  meets  a foreigner  is  not  ashamed  to  affirm 
in  reply  to  a question,  that  he  cannot  read,  and  then  when  a 
little  book  has  been  handed  him  to  look  at,  he  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  slink  away  in  the  crowd  without  paying  the  three  cash 
which  is  the  cost.  He  has  no  sense  of  shame  at  such  a pro- 
ceeding, but  rather  a thrill  of  joy  that  he  has  circumvented  the 
silly  foreigner,  who  has  so  little  astuteness  as  to  trust  a total 
stranger.  It  is  very  common  for  a man  who  is  buying  from  a 
foreigner  to  give  a cash  less  than  the  proper  amount,  alleging 
that  he  has  not  another  cash  with  him.  When  he  is  informed 
that  there  is  one  in  his  ear  at  the  moment,  he  takes  it  out  with 
reluctance,  feeling  that  he  has  been  defrauded.  In  like  man- 
ner a man  who  has  spent  ''  an  old  half-day  ” in  trying  to  get 
something  free  of  cost,  on  the  ground  that  he  is  totally  with- 
out money,  will  at  last  draw  forth  a string  of  a thousand  cash, 
hand  it  to  you  with  an  air  of  melancholy,  and  request  you  to 
take  out  the  proper  amount.  But  if  he  is  believed,  and  gets 


282 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


something  for  nothing,  he  departs  with  a keen  joy  in  his  heart, 
like  that  of  one  who  has  slain  a serpent. 

The  solidarity  of  Chinese  society  finds  one  of  its  manifesta- 
tions in  the  constant  habit  of  borrowing  what  belongs  to  a 
relative,  with  or  without  a notification  of  the  intention  so  to 
do.  Many  of  the  articles  thus  “ borrowed  ” are  at  once  put 
in  pawn,  and  if  they  are  wanted  again  the  owners  must  redeem 
them.  A Chinese  boy  in  a mission  school  was  detected  in 
stealing  money  from  the  single  lady  who  had  charge  of  the 
scholars’  rooms.  Upon  being  confronted  with  irrefragable 
proof  of  his  guilt,  he  explained,  with  sobs,  that  when  at  home 
he  had  always  been  in  the  habit  of  stealing  from  his  mother, 
and  that  his  foreign  teacher  was  so  much  like  an  own  mother 
to  him  that  he  was  betrayed  into  stealing  from  her  too ! 

While  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  many  of  the  evils  which 
are  so  conspicuous  in  Chinese  social  life  are  to  be  found  also 
in  Western  lands,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  clearly  to  per- 
ceive the  points  of  essential  contrast.  One  of  these  we  take 
to  be  that  already  mentioned,  in  that  insincerity  in  China, 
while  not  always  to  be  met  with,  is  always  to  be  looked  for. 
Instances  of  this  have  been  already  cited  in  speaking  of  other 
topics,  and  others  might  be  referred  to  at  almost  any  length. 

An  interesting  volume  remains  to  be  written  by  some  one 
who  has  the  requisite  knowledge,  on  the  theory  and  practice 
of  Chinese  squeezes — a practice  which  extends  from  the  Em- 
peror on  his  throne  to  the  lowest  beggar  in  the  Empire.  With 
that  practical  sagacity  for  which  they  are  so  deservedly  noted, 
the  Chinese  have  reduced  this  business  to  a perfect  system, 
which  can  no  more  be  escaped  than  one  can  escape  the  press- 
ure of  the  atmosphere.  Vicious  and  demoralising  as  the  sys- 
tem is,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  it  can  be  done  away  with, 
except  by  a complete  reorganisation  of  the  Empire. 

The  result  of  this  state  of  things,  and  of  the  characteristics 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


283 


of  the  Chinese  which  have  led  to  it,  is  that  it  is  very  difficult 
for  a foreigner  to  have  to  do  with  the  Chinese  in  a practical 
way,  and  on  any  extended  scale,  and  yet  contrive  to  preserve 
his  reputation — should  he  be  so  fortunate  as  to  have  one — as 
a “superior  man.”  It  is  a proverb  constantly  quoted,  and 
self-verifying,  that  carters,  boatmen,  inn-keepers,  coolies,  and 
middlemen,  irrespective  of  any  specific  offence,  all  deserve  to 
be  killed  on  general  principles.  The  relation  of  this  class  of 
persons  and  others  like  them  to  foreigners  is  peculiar,  for  it  is 
known  that  foreigners  will  consent  to  a great  deal  of  imposi- 
tion rather  than  have  a social  typhoon,  for  which  they  gener- 
ally lack  both  the  taste  and  the  talent ; yet  it  is  by  the  social 
typhoon  that,  in  case  of  any  supposed  breach  of  equity  on 
the  part  of  Chinese  towards  Chinese,  the  social  atmosphere  is 
brought  at  last  to  a state  of  equilibrium. 

He  must  be  a rare  man  who  has  no  blind  side  upon  which 
those  Chinese  who  choose  to  do  so  cannot  get.  Not  to  be 
too  suspicious  and  not  to  be  too  confiding  is  a rare  illustra- 
tion of  the  golden  mean.  If  one  exhibits  that  just  disappro- 
bation towards  insincerity  which  it  seems  to  demand,  the 
Chinese,  who  are  shrewd  judges  of  human  nature,  set  it  down 
to  our  discredit  as  a mark  of  “ temper  ” ; while  if  we  maintain 
the  placid  demeanour  of  a Buddha  absorbed  in  his  Nirvana, 
a demeanour  which  is  not  easy  for  all  temperaments  at  all 
times,  we  are  at  once  marked  as  fit  subjects  for  further  and 
indefinite  exactions.  That  was  a typical  Chinese  who,  being 
in  foreign  employ,  saw  one  day  a peddler  on  the  street,  vend- 
ing little  clay  images  of  foreigners,  cleverly  executed  and  in 
appropriate  costume.  Stopping  for  a moment  to  examine 
them,  he  said  to  the  dealer  in  images,  “ Ah,  you  play  with 
these  toys ; I play  with  the  real  things.” 

It  is  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  to  allude  in  passing  to 
the  fact  that  the  Chinese  government,  so  far  as  it  is  knowable, 
appears  to  be  a gigantic  example  of  the  trait  which  we  are 


284 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


discussing.  Instances  are  to  be  found  in  the  entire  history  of 
foreign  relations  with  China,  and  one  might  almost  say  in  all 
that  is  known  of  the  relations  of  Chinese  officials  to  the  people. 
A single  but  compendious  illustration  is  to  be  found  in  those 
virtuous  proclamations  which  are  issued  with  such  unfailing 
regularity,  in  such  superlative  abundance,  with  such  felicity 
of  diction,  on  all  varieties  of  subjects  and  from  all  grades  of 
officials.  One  thing  only  is  lacking,  namely,  reality,  for  these 
fine  commands  are  not  intended  to  be  enforced.  This  is  quite 
understood  by  all  concerned,  and  on  this  point  there  are  no 
illusions.  “ The  life  and  state  papers  of  a Chinese  statesman, 
like  the  Confessions  of  Rousseau,  abound  in  the  finest  senti- 
ments and  the  foulest  deeds.  He  cuts  off  ten  thousand 
heads,  and  cites  a passage  from  Mencius  about  the  sanctity 
of  human  life.  He  pockets  the  money  given  him  to  repair  an 
embankment  and  thus  inundates  a province,  and  he  deplores 
the  land  lost  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil.  He  makes  a treaty 
which  he  secretly  declares  to  be  only  a deception  for  the  mo- 
ment, and  he  declaims  against  the  crime  of  perjury.”  Doubt- 
less there  may  be  pure-minded  and  upright  officials  in  China, 
but  it  is  very  hard  to  find  them,  and  from  the  nature  of  their 
environment  they  are  utterly  helpless  to  accomplish  the  good 
which  they  may  have  at  heart.  When  we  compare  the  actual 
condition  of  those  who  have  had  the  best  opportunity  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  Chinese  Classics,  with  the  teachings 
of  these  Classics,  we  gain  a vivid  conception  of  how  practically 
inert  they  have  been  to  bring  society  to  their  high  standard. 

“ How  many  Chinese  have  you  ever  known  whom  you 
would  implicitly  trust?”  This  question  must  be  understood 
to  relate  only  to  those  who  have  come  under  no  influences 
outside  of  regular  Chinese  education.  Different  replies  will 
be  given  by  different  persons  according  to  their  experience, 
and  according  to  their  standard  of  judging  of  Chinese  charac- 
ter. Most  foreigners  would  probably  reply,  “ A very  few,” 


THE  ABSENCE  OF  SINCERITY 


285 


“ Six  or  eight,”  “A  dozen,”  as  the  case  may  be.  Occasionally 
the  answer  will  be,  “ A great  many,  more  than  I can  remem- 
ber.” But  we  must  believe  that  intelligent  and  discriminating 
observers  who  can  truthfully  give  the  latter  reply  are  exceed- 
ingly few  in  number. 

It  is  always  prudent  to  observe  what  things  a people  take 
for  granted,  and  to  act  accordingly.  As  wre  have  seen  in  the 
discussion  of  mutual  suspicion  as  a factor  in  Chinese  social 
life,  the  Chinese  take  it  for  granted  that  they  are  not  to  trust 
others,  for  reasons  which  they  well  understand.  It  is  pre- 
cisely this  state  of  things  which  makes  the  future  of  China  so 
full  of  uncertainty.  The  governing  class  as  a whole  is  not 
the  best  but  the  worst  in  the  Empire.  An  intelligent  Taotai 
remarked  to  a foreigner  that  “ the  officials  under  the  Emperor 
are  all  bad  men  and  ought  to  be  killed,  but  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  kill  us,  as  the  next  incumbents  would  be  just  as  bad  as 
we.”  The  serpent,  as  the  Chinese  adage  runs,  knows  his  own 
hole,  and  it  is  a significant  fact  that  the  official  class  in  China 
is  profoundly  distrusted  by  the  class  next  below  it,  the  mer- 
cantile. They  know  that  the  so-called  “ reformation  ” is  but 
a superficial  shell,  which  will  soon  scale  off.  A Chinese  mason 
spending  a vast  amount  of  time  smoothing  the  outside  of 
chimneys  and  roofs  which  he  has  built  badly  with  untempered 
mortar,  and  which  he  knorvs  will  smoke  and  leak  at  the  first 
opportunity,  is  a type  of  many  things  in  China. 

There  is  wealth  enough  in  China  to  develop  the  resources 
of  the  Empire,  if  there  were  but  the  confidence,  without  which 
timid  capital  will  not  emerge  from  its  hiding-place.  There  is 
learning  enough  in  China  for  all  its  needs.  There  is  no  lack  of 
talent  of  every  description.  But  without  mutual  confidence, 
based  upon  real  sincerity  of  purpose,  all  these  are  insufficient 
for  the  regeneration  of  the  Empire. 

A few  years  ago  the  writer  was  consulted  by  an  intelligent 
Chinese  in  regard  to  the  possibility  of  doing  something  for 


286 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  relief  of  a district  that  has  great  trouble  with  its  wells, 
which  are  made  in  the  usual  Chinese  way,  and  bricked  up  by 
a wall  begun  from  the  top  and  lowered  as  the  well  is  deep- 
ened. But  in  this  particular  locality  the  soil  is  of  such  a char- 
acter that  after  a time  the  whole  ground  sinks,  taking  the  well 
and  its  brick  lining  with  it,  leaving  only  a hole,  which  event- 
ually caves  in  and  becomes  dry.  Like  the  attempt  to  remedy 
the  evils  of  this  unfortunate  district  in  the  province  of  Chihli 
is  any  prescription  to  cure  the  ills  from  which  China  is  suffer- 
ing, and  has  long  suffered,  which  does  not  go  deep  enough  to 
reach  the  roots  of  character.  All  superficial  treatment  will  prove 
at  last  to  be  but  burying  cart-loads  of  excellent  material  in  a 
Slough  of  Despond. 


The  Temple  of  Heaven,  Pekin. 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM. 

ONFUCIANISM,  as  a system  of  thought,  is  among  the 


most  remarkable  intellectual  achievements  of  the  race. 
It  is  true  that  the  Western  reader  cannot  escape  a feeling  that 
much  of  what  he  finds  in  the  Confucian  Classics  is  jejune. 
But  it  is  not  merely  by  perusing  them  that  we  are  to  receive 
our  most  forcible  impressions  of  what  the  Chinese  Classics 
are  and  have  been,  but  by  contemplating  their  effects.  Here  is 
the  Chinese  race,  by  far  the  mightiest  aggregation  of  human 
beings  in  any  one  nation  on  earth,  “ with  a written  history  ex- 
tending as  far  back  as  that  of  any  other  which  the  world  has 
known,  the  only  nation  that  has  throughout  retained  its  nation- 
ality, and  has  never  been  ousted  from  the  land  where  it  first 
appeared,”  existing,  for  aught  that  appears,  in  much  the  same 
way  as  in  hoary  antiquity.  What  is  the  explanation  of  this 
unexampled  fact  ? By  what  means  has  this  incomputable 
mass  of  human  beings,  dwelling  on  the  Chinese  plains  from 
the  dawn  of  history  until  now,  been  controlled,  and  how  is  it 
that  they  appear  to  be  an  exception  to  the  universal  law  of  the 
decay  and  death  of  nations  ? 

Those  who  have  investigated  this  subject  most  thoroughly 
are  united  in  declaring  that  this  result  is  due  to  the  fact  that, 
whereas  other  nations  have  depended  upon  physical  force,  the 
Chinese  have  depended  upon  moral  forces.  No  student  of 
history,  no  observant  traveller  who  knows  human  nature,  can 
fail  to  be  impressed,  to  the  point  of  deep  awe,  with  the  thought 


287 


288 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  the  marvellous  restraining  power  which  Chinese  morality 
has  exerted  upon  the  race  from  the  earliest  times  until  now. 
“It  would  be  hard  to  overestimate,”  says  Dr.  Williams,  “the 
influence  of  Confucius  in  his  ideal  princely  scholar,  and  the 
power  for  good  over  his  race  which  this  conception  has  ever 
since  exerted.  The  immeasurable  influence  in  after-ages  of 
the  character  thus  portrayed  proves  how  lofty  was  his  own 
standard,  and  the  national  conscience  has  ever  since  assented 
to  the  justice  of  the  portrait.”  “ The  teaching  of  Confucian- 
ism on  human  duty,”  says  Dr.  Legge,  “is  wonderful  and  ad- 
mirable. It  is  not  perfect,  indeed.  But  on  the  last  three  of 
the  four  things  which  Confucius  delighted  to  teach — letters, 
ethics,  devotion  of  soul,  and  truthfulness — his  utterances  are 
in  harmony  both  with  the  Law  and  the  Gospel.  A world 
ordered  by  them  would  be  a beautiful  world.” 

The  entire  freedom  of  the  Chinese  classical  works  from  any- 
thing which  could  debase  the  mind  of  the  readers  is  a most 
important  characteristic  which  has  been  often  pointed  out,  and 
which  is  in  the  greatest  possible  contrast  to  the  literatures  of 
India,  Greece,  and  Rome.  “No  people,”  says  Mr.  Meadows, 
“ whether  of  ancient  or  modern  times,  has  possessed  a sacred 
literature  so  completely  exempt  as  the  Chinese  from  licentious 
descriptions,  and  from  every  offensive  expression.  There  is 
not  a single  sentence  in  the  whole  of  the  Sacred  Books  and 
their  annotations  that  may  not  be  read  aloud  in  any  family 
circle  in  England.  Again,  in  every  other  non-Christian  coun- 
try, idolatry  has  been  associated  with  human  sacrifices  and  with 
the  deification  of  vice,  accompanied  by  licentious  rites  and 
orgies.  Not  a sign  of  all  this  exists  in  China.” 

The  direct  personal  responsibility  of  the  Emperor  to  heaven 
for  the  quality  of  his  rule ; the  exaltation  of  the  people  as  of 
more  importance  than  the  rulers ; the  doctrine  that  the  vir- 
tuous and  able  should  be  the  rulers,  and  that  their  rule  must 
be  based  upon  virtue ; the  comprehensive  theory  of  the  five 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


289 


relations  of  men  to  each  other;  the  doctrine  that  no  one 
should  do  to  another  what  he  would  not  have  that  other  do  to 
him — these  points  have  stood  out  like  mountain-peaks  from 
the  general  level  of  Chinese  thought,  and  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  all  observers.  In  closing  what  we  have  to  say 
of  the  Chinese,  we  wish  to  place  emphasis  upon  the  moral 
excellences  of  the  Confucian  system,  for  it  is  only  by  putting 
those  excellences  in  their  true  light  that  we  can  hope  to  arrive 
at  any  just  comprehension  of  the  Chinese  people.  Those 
excellences  have  made  the  Chinese  pre-eminently  amenable  to 
moral  forces.  The  employment  of  the  classical  writings  in 
the  civil  service  examinations  for  successive  ages  has  unified 
the  minds  of  the  people  to  a marvellous  degree,  and  the 
powerful  motives  thus  brought  into  play,  leading  every  candi- 
date for  a degree  to  hope  for  the  stability  of  the  government 
as  a prerequisite  to  his  own  success,  has  doubtless  been  a 
principal  factor  in  the  perpetuation  of  the  Chinese  people  to- 
this  present  time. 

Whether  the  Chinese  ever  did  have  a knowledge  of  one 
true  God  is  indeed  a point  of  considerable  interest.  Those 
who  have  examined  most  critically  the  classical  writings  of 
the  Chinese  assure  us  that  the  weight  of  scholarship  is  upon 
the  side  of  the  affirmative.  By  others  who  have  a claim  to 
an  independent  judgment,  this  proposition  is  altogether  denied. 
If  the  Chinese  ever  did  recognise  the  true  God,  that  knowl- 
edge has  certainly  been  most  effectually  lost,  like  an  inscrip- 
tion on  an  ancient  coin  now  covered  with  the  accumulated 
rust  of  millenniums.  To  us  the  question  seems  to  be  of  very 
much  less  practical  concern  than  some  would  make  it,  and  for 
our  present  purposes  it  may  be  altogether  ignored.  What 
concerns  us  in  our  present  inquiry  is  neither  a historical  nor  a 
theoretical  matter,  but  a practical  one,  to  wit,  What  is  the 
relation  which  exists  between  the  Chinese  and  their  divinities? 

It  is  in  some  cases  not  difficult  to  trace  the  stages  by  which 


290 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  heroes  and  worthies  of  antiquity  from  being  honoured 
came  to  be  commemorated,  and  from  being  merely* commem- 
orated came  to  be  worshipped.  All  the  gods  of  China  may 
be  said  to  have  been  dead  men,  and  by  the  rite  of  ancestral 
worship  it  may  be  affirmed  that  in  a sense  all  the  dead  men 
of  China  are  gods.  Temples  are  constantly  erected  by  the 
consent  of  the  Emperor,  to  men  who  while  living  had  in  vari- 
ous ways  distinguished  themselves.  It  is  impossible  to  say 
that  any  one  of  these  men  may  not  in  the  slow  evolution  of 
ages  rise  to  the  highest  place  among  the  national  divinities. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  as  a nation  the  Chinese 
are  polytheistic. 

That  there  is  a tendency  in  man  towards  the  worship  of 
nature  is  a mere  truism.  The  recognition  of  irresistible  and 
unknown  forces  leads  to  their  personification  and  to  external 
acts  of  adoration,  based  upon  the  supposition  that  these  forces 
are  sentient.  Thus  temples  to  the  gods  of  wind,  thunder,  etc., 
abound.  The  north  star  is  an  object  of  constant  worship. 
There  are  temples  to  the  sun  and  to  the  moon  in  Peking,  in 
connection  with  the  Imperial  worship,  but  in  some  regions 
the  worship  of  the  sun  is  a regular  act  of  routine  on  the  part 
of  the  people  in  general,  on  a day  in  the  second  month  which 
they  designate  as  his  “ birthday.”  Early  in  the  morning  the 
villagers  go  out  to  the  east  to  meet  the  sun,  and  in  the  even- 
ing they  go  out  towards  the  west  to  escort  him  on  his  way. 
This  ends  the  worship  of  the  sun  for  a year. 

An  exceedingly  common  manifestation  of  this  nature-wor- 
ship is  in  the  reverence  for  trees,  which  in  some  provinces  (as, 
for  example,  in  northwestern  Honan)  is  so  exceedingly  com- 
mon that  one  may  pass  hundreds  of  trees  of  all  sizes,  each  of 
them  hung  with  bannerets  indicating  that  it  is  the  abode  of 
some  spirit.  Even  when  there  is  no  external  symbol  of  wor- 
ship, the  superstition  exists  in  full  force.  If  a fine  old  tree  is 
seen  standing  in  front  of  a wretched  hovel,  it  is  morally  certain 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM  291 

that  the  owner  of  the  tree  dare  not  cut  it  down  on  account  of 
the  divinity  within. 

It  is  often  supposed  that  the  Emperor  is  the  only  individual 
in  the  Empire  who  has  the  prerogative  of  worshipping  heaven. 
The  very  singular  and  interesting  ceremonies  which  are  per- 
formed in  the  Temple  of  Heaven  by  the  Emperor  in  person 
are  no  doubt  unique.  But  it  would  be  news  to  the  people  of 
China  as  a whole  that  they  do  not  and  must  not  worship 
heaven  and  earth  each  for  themselves.  The  houses  often 
have  a small  shrine  in  the  front  wall  facing  the  south,  and  in 
some  regions  this  is  called  the  shrine  to  heaven  and  earth. 
Multitudes  of  Chinese  will  testify  that  the  only  act  of  religious 
worship  which  they  ever  perform  (aside  from  ancestral  rites) 
is  a prostration  and  an  offering  to  heaven  and  earth  on  the 
first  and  fifteenth  of  each  moon,  or,  in  some  cases,  on  the  be- 
ginning of  each  new  year.  No  prayer  is  uttered,  and  after  a 
time  the  offering  is  removed,  and,  as  in  other  cases,  eaten. 
What  is  it  that  at  such  times  the  people  worship  ? Sometimes 
they  affirm  that  the  object  of  worship  is  “ heaven  and  earth.” 
Sometimes  they  say  that  it  is  “ heaven,”  and  again  they  call 
it  “ the  old  man  of  the  sky.”  The  latter  term  often  leads  to 
an  impression  that  the  Chinese  do  have  a real  perception  of  a 
personal  deity.  But  when  it  is  ascertained  that  this  supposed 
“ person  ” is  frequently  matched  by  another  called  “ grand- 
mother earth,”  the  value  of  the  inference  is  open  to  serious 
question.  In  some  places  it  is  customary  to  offer  worship  to 
this  “ old  man  of  the  sky  ” on  the  nineteenth  of  the  sixth 
moon,  as  that  is  his  “ birthday.”  But  among  a people  who 
assign  a “ birthday  ” to  the  sun,  it  is  superfluous  to  inquire 
who  was  the  father  of  “ the  old  man  of  the  sky,”  or  when  he 
was  bom,  for  on  matters  of  this  sort  there  is  absolutely  no 
opinion  at  all.  It  is  difficult  to  make  an  ordinary  Chinese 
understand  that  such  questions  have  any  practical  bearing. 


292 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


He  takes  the  tradition  as  he  finds  it,  and  never  dreams  of 
raising  any  inquiries  upon  this  point  or  any  otfyer.  We  have 
seldom  met  any  Chinese  who  had  an  intelligible  theory  with 
regard  to  the  antecedents  or  qualities-  of  “ the  old  man  of  the 
sky,”  except  that  he  is  supposed  to  regulate  the  weather,  and 
hence  the  crops.  The  wide  currency  among  the  Chinese 
people  of  this  term,  hinting  at  a personality,  to  whom,  how- 
ever, so  far  as  we  know,  no  temples  are  erected,  of  whom  no 
image  is  made,  and  to  whom  no  worship  distinct  from  that  to 
“ heaven  and  earth  ” is  offered,  seems  to  remain  thus  far  un- 
explained. 

The  word  “ heaven  ” is  often  used  in  the  Chinese  Classics 
in  such  a way  as  to  convey  the  idea  of  personality  and  will. 
But  it  is  likewise  employed  in  a manner  which  suggests  very 
little  of  either,  and  when  we  read  in  the  commentary  that 
“heaven  is  a principle,”  we  feel  that  the  vagueness  of  the 
term  is  at  its  maximum.  To  this  ambiguity  in  classical  use 
corresponds  the  looseness  of  meaning  given  to  it  in  everyday 
life.  The  man  who  has  been  worshipping  heaven,  upon  being 
pressed  to  know  what  he  means  by  “ heaven,”  will  frequently 
reply  that  it  is  the  blue  expanse  above.  His  worship  is  there- 
fore in  harmony  with  that  of  him  who  worships  the  powers  of 
nature,  either  individually  or  collectively.  His  creed  may  be 
described  in  Emersonian  phrase  as  “ one  with  the  blowing 
clover  and  the  falling  rain.”  In  other  words,  he  is  a panthe- 
ist. This  lack  of  any  definite  sense  of  personality  is  a fatal 
flaw  in  the  Chinese  worship  of  “ heaven.” 

The  polytheism  and  pantheism  of  the  lower  classes  of  Chi- 
nese are  matched  in  the  upper  classes  by  what  appears  to  be 
pure  atheism.  From  the  testimony  of  those  who  know  most 
on  this  point,  from  the  abundant  surface  indications,  and  from 
antecedent  probability,  we  have  no  difficulty  in  concluding 
that  there  never  was  on  this  earth  a body  of  educated  and 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


293 


cultivated  men  so  thoroughly  agnostic  and  atheistic  as  the 
mass  of  Confucian  scholars.*  The  phrase  “ antecedent  prob- 
ability ” refers  to  the  known  influence  which  has  been  exerted 
over  the  literati  of  China  by  the  materialistic  commentators 
of  the  Sung  Dynasty.  The  authority  of  Chu  Hsi,  the  learned 
expounder  of  the  Chinese  Classics,  has  been  so  overwhelming 
that  to  question  any  of  his  views  has  long  been  regarded  as 
heresy.  The  effect  has  been  to  overlay  the  teachings  of  the 
Classics  with  an  interpretation  which  is  not  only  materialistic, 
but  -which,  so  far  as  we  understand  it,  is  totally  atheistic. 

After  the  Yellow  River  emerges  from  the  mountains  of 
Shansi  and  Shensi,  it  continues  its  way  for  hundreds  of  miles 
to  the  sea.  In  successive  ages  it  has  taken  many  different 
routes,  ranging  through  six  or  seven  degrees  of  latitude,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  to  that  of  the  Peiho.  But 
wherever  it  has  flowed  it  has  carried  ruin,  and  has  left  be- 
hind it  a barren  waste  of  sand.  Not  unlike  this  has  been  the 
materialistic  current  introduced  by  the  commentators  of  the 
Sung  Dynasty  into  the  stream  of  Chinese  thought,  a current 
which,  having  flowed  unchecked  for  seven  centuries,  has  left 
behind  it  a moral  waste  of  atheistic  sand,  incapable  of  sup- 
porting the  spiritual  life  of  a nation.  Taoism  has  degener- 
ated into  a system  of  incantations  against  evil  spirits.  It  has 
largely  borrowed  from  Buddhism  to  supplement  its  own  in- 
nate deficiencies.  Buddhism  was  itself  introduced  to  provide 
for  those  inherent  wants  in  the  nature  of  man  which  Confu- 
cianism did  little  or  nothing  to  satisfy.  Each  of  these  forms 
of  instruction  has  been  greatly  modified  by  the  others.'  Any 
kind  of  organisation  which  offers  a method  of  practising  virtue 
will  be  patronised  by  those  who  happen  to  be  disposed  to  lay 
up  a little  merit,  and  to  whom  this  avenue  appears  as  good  as 

* Mr.  Meadows  remarks  that  every  consistent  Confucianist  ought  to 
he  a blank  atheist,  but  as  human  nature  is  seldom  ideally  self-consistent, 
many  Confucianists  either  believe  in  the  gods,  or  think  that  they  do  so. 


294 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


any  other.  Any  kind  of  a divinity  which  seems  adapted  to 
exert  a favourable  influence  in  any  given  direction  will  be 
patronised,  just  as  a man  who  happens  to  need  a new  um- 
brella goes  to  some  shop  where  they  keep  such  goods  for 
sale.  To  inquire  into  the  antecedents  of  the  divinity  who  is 
thus  worshipped,  no  more  occurs  to  a Chinese  than  it  would 
occur  to  an  Englishman  who  wanted  the  umbrella  to  satisfy 
himitelf  as  to  the  origin  of  umbrellas,  and  when  they  first  came 
into  general  use. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  learned  disquisitions  upon 
the  question  as  to  the  number  of  Buddhists  and  Taoists  in 
China.  In  our  view  this  question  is  exactly  paralleled  by  an 
inquiry  into  the  number  of  persons  in  the  United  Kingdom 
who  use  ten-penny  nails  as  compared  with  the  number  of 
those  who  eat  string-beans.  Any  one  who  wants  to  use  a 
ten-penny  nail  will  do  so  if  he  can  obtain  it,  and  those  who 
like  string-beans  and  can  afford  to  buy  them  will  presump- 
tively consume  them.  The  case  is  not  different  in  China  as 
regards  the  two  most  prominent  “ doctrines.”  Any  Chinese 
who  wants  the  services  of  a Buddhist  priest,  and  who  can 
afford  to  pay  for  them,  will  hire  the  priest,  and  thus  be  "a 
Buddhist.”  If  he  wants  a Taoist  priest,  he  will  in  like  man- 
ner call  him,  and  this  makes  him  “ a Taoist.”  It  is  of  no 
consequence  to  the  Chinese  which  of  the  two  he  employs,  and 
he  will  not  improbably  call  them  both  at  once,  and  thus  be 
at  once  “a  Buddhist”  and  "a  Taoist.”  Thus  the  same  indi- 
vidual is  at  once  a Confucianist,  a Buddhist,  and  a Taoist,  and 
with  no  sense  of  incongruity.  Buddhism  swallowed  Taoism, 
Taoism  swallowed  Confucianism,  but  at  last  the  latter  swal- 
lowed both  Buddhism  and  Taoism  together,  and  thus  “the 
three  religions  are  one  ! ” 

The  practical  relation  of  the  Chinese  to  their  “ three  relig- 
ions ” may  be  illustrated  by  the  relations  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  to 
the  materials  of  which  his  language  is  composed:  “Saxon  and 


POLYTHEISM , PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


295 


Norman  and  Dane  are  we ; ” but  even  were  it  possible  to  de- 
termine our  remote  origin,  the  choice  of  our  words  would  not 
be  influenced  in  the  smallest  degree  by  the  extent  to  which  we 
may  happen  to  have  Saxon  or  Norman  blood  in  our  veins. 
Our  selection  of  words  will  be  determined  by  our  mental  hab- 
its, and  by  the  use  to  which  we  wish  to  put  the  words.  The 
scholar  will  use  many  Latin  words,  with  liberal  admixture  of 
the  Norman,  while  the  fanner  will  use  mostly  plain  Saxon  terms. 
But  in  either  case  the  Saxon  is  the  base,  to  which  the  other 
stocks  are  but  additions.  In  China  Confucianism  is  the  base, 
and  all  Chinese  are  Confucianists,  as  all  English  are  Saxons. 
To  what  extent  Buddhist  or  Taoist  ideas,  phraseology,  and 
practices  may  be  superimposed  upon  this  base,  will  be  deter- 
mined by  circumstances.  But  to  the  Chinese  there  is  no  more 
incongruity  or  contradiction  in  the  combination  of  the  “ three 
religions  ” in  one  ceremony,  than  there  is  to  our  thought  in  the 
interweaving  of  words  of  diverse  national  origin  in  the  same 
sentence. 

It  is  always  difficult  to  make  a Chinese  perceive  that  two 
forms  of  belief  are  mutually  exclusive.  He  knows  nothing 
about  logical  contradictories,  and  cares  even  less.  He  has 
learned  by  instinct  the  art  of  reconciling  propositions  which 
are  inherently  irreconcilable,  by  violently  affirming  each  of 
them,  paying  no  heed  whatever  to  their  mutual  relations.  He 
is  thus  prepared  by  all  his  intellectual  training  to  allow  the 
most  incongruous  forms  of  belief  to  unite,  as  fluids  mingle 
by  endosmosis  and  exosmosis.  He  has  carried  “ intellectual 
hospitality  ” to  the  point  of  logical  suicide,  but  he  does  not 
know  it,  and  cannot  be  made  to  understand  it  when  he  is  told. 

Two  results  of  this  mechanical  union  of  creeds  are  very 
noteworthy.  The  first  is  the  violence  done  to  the  innate  in- 
stinct of  order,  an  instinct  for  which  the  Chinese  are  espe- 
cially distinguished,  which  is  conspicuously  displayed  in  the 
elaborate  machinery  of  the  carefully  graded  ranks  of  officials, 


296 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


from  the  first  to  the  ninth,  each  marked  by  its  own  badge, 
and  having  its  own  special  limitations.  Something  analogous 
to  this  might  certainly  have  been  looked  for  in  the  Chinese 
pantheon,  but  nothing  of  the  sort  is  found.  It  is  vain  to  in- 
quire of  a Chinese  which  divinity  is  supposed  to  be  the  greater, 
the  “ Pearly  Emperor  ” or  Buddha.  Even  in  the  “ Temple-to- 
all-the-gods  ” the  order  is  merely  arbitrary  and  accidental,  and 
subject  to  constant  variations.  There  is  no  regular  gradua- 
tion of  authority  in  the  spirit  world  of  the  Chinese,  but  such 
utter  confusion  as,  if  found  on  earth,  would  be  equivalent  to 
chronic  anarchy.  This  state  of  things  is  seen  in  a still  more 
conspicuous  manner  in  the  “ Halls  of  the  Three  Religions,” 
where  the  images  of  Confucius,  of  Buddha,  and  of  Laotze 
are  displayed  in  a close  harmony.  The  post  of  honour  is  in 
the  centre,  and  this  we  should  expect  to  be  conceded  to 
Confucius,  or  if  not  to  him — since  he  made  no  claim  of  any 
kind  to  divinity — then  to  Laotze.  There  is  good  reason  to 
think  that  this  question  of  precedence  has  been  in  by-gone 
days  the  occasion  of  acrimonious  disputes,  but  in  nearly  all 
the  instances  of  which  we  happen  to  have  heard,  it  has  been 
settled  in  favour  of  Buddha,  albeit  a foreigner! 

Another  significant  result  of  the  union  of  all  beliefs  in  China, 
is  the  debasement  of  man’s  moral  nature  to  the  lowest  level 
found  in  any  of  the  creeds.  This  is  in  accordance  with  a law 
akin  to  that  by  which  a baser  currency  invariably  displaces 
that  which  is  better.  All  the  lofty  maxims  of  Confucianism 
have  been  wholly  ineffective  in  guarding  the  Confucianists 
from  fear  of  the  goblins  and  devils  which  figure  so  largely  in 
Taoism.  It  has  often  been  remarked,  and  with  every  appear- 
ance of  truth,  that  there  is  no  other  civilised  nation  in  exist- 
ence which  is  under  such  bondage  to  superstition  and  credu- 
lity as  the  Chinese.  Wealthy  merchants  and  learned  scholars 
are  not  ashamed  to  be  seen,  on  the  two  days  of  the  month 
set  apart  for  that  purpose,  worshipping  the  fox,  the  weasel, 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


297 

the  hedgehog,  the  snake,  and  the  rat,  all  of  which  in  printed 
placards  are  styled  “Their  Excellencies,”  and  are  thought  to 
have  an  important  effect  on  human  destiny. 

It  is  not  many  years  since  the  most  prominent  statesman  in 
China  fell  on  his  knees  before  a water-snake  which  some  one 
had  been  pleased  to  represent  as  an  embodiment  of  the  god 
of  floods,  supposed  to  be  the  incarnation  of  an  official  of  a 
former  dynasty,  whose  success  in  dealing  with  brimming  rivers 
was  held  to  be  miraculous.  This  habit  of  worshipping  a 
snake,  alleged  to  be  a god,  whenever  floods  devastate  China 
appears  to  be  a general  one.  In  districts  at  a distance  from 
a river,  any  ordinary  land-serpent  will  pass  as  a god  and  “ no 
questions  asked.”  If  the  waters  subside,  extensive  theatrical 
performances  may  be  held  in  honour  of  the  god  who  has 
granted  this  boon,  to  wit,  the  snake,  which  is  placed  on  a tray 
in  a temple  or  other  public  place  for  the  purpose.  The  Dis- 
trict Magistrate,  and  all  other  officers,  go  there  every  day  to 
prostrate  themselves  and  to  burn  incense  to  the  divinity.  A 
river-god  is  generally  regarded  as  the  rain-god  in  regions  ad- 
jacent to  waterways,  but  at  a little  distance  in  the  interior,  the 
god  of  war,  Kuan  Ti,  is  much  more  likely  to  be  worshipped 
for  the  same  purpose ; but  sometimes  both  are  supplanted  by 
the  goddess  of  mercy.  To  a Chinese  this  does  not  seem  at 
all  irrational,  for  his  mind  is  free  from  all  presumptions  as  to 
the  unity  of  nature,  and  it  is  very  hard  for  him  to  appreciate 
the  absurdity,  even  when  it  is  demonstrated  to  him. 

In  connection  with  these  prayers  for  rain,  another  curious 
and  most  significant  fact  has  often  been  brought  to  our  notice. 
In  the  famous  Chinese  novel  called  “ Travels  to  the  West,” 
one  of  the  principal  characters  was  originally  a monkey  hatched 
from  a stone,  and  by  slow  degrees  of  evolution  developed  into 
a man.  In  some  places  this  imaginary  being  is  worshipped  as 
a rain-god,  to  the  exclusion  of  both  the  river-god  and  the  god 
of  war.  No  instance  could  put  in  a clearer  light  than  this  the 


298 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


total  lack  in  China  of  any  dividing  line  between  the  real  and 
the  fictitious.  To  a Western  mind  causes  and  effects  are  cor- 
relative. What  may  be  the  intuitions  of  cause  and  effect  in 
the  mind  of  a Chinese  who  prays  to  a non-existent  monkey  to 
induce  a fall  of  rain,  we  are  not  able  to  conjecture. 

The  gods  of  the  Chinese  being  of  this  heterogeneous  descrip- 
tion, it  is  of  importance  to  inquire  what  the  Chinese  do  with 
them.  To  this  question  there  are  two  answers:  they  worship 
them,  and  they  .neglect  them.  It  is  not  very  uncommon  to 
meet  with  estimates  of  the  amount  which  the  whole  Chinese 
nation  expends  for  incense,  paper  money,  etc.,  in  the  course 
of  a year.  Such  estimates  are  of  course' based  upon  a calcu- 
lation of  the  apparent  facts  in  some  special  district,  which  is 
taken  as  a unit,  and  then  used  as  a multiplier  for  all  the  other 
districts  of  the  Empire.  Nothing  can  be  more  precarious  than 
so-called  " statistics  ” of  this  sort,  which  have  literally  no  more 
validity  than  that  census  of  a cloud  of  mosquitoes  which  was 
taken  by  a man  who  “ counted  until  he  was  tired,  and  then 
estimated.” 

There  is  very  little  which  one  can  be  safe  in  predicating  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  as  a whole.  Of  this  truth  the  worship  in 
Chinese  temples  is  a conspicuous  example.  The  traveller 
who  lands  in  Canton,  and  who  perceives  the  clouds  of  smoke 
arising  from  the  incessant  offerings  to  the  divinities  most  pop- 
ular there,  will  conclude  that  the  Chinese  are  among  the  most 
idolatrous  people  in  the  world.  But  let  him  restrain  his  judg- 
ment until  he  has  visited  the  other  end  of  the  Empire,  and  he 
will  find  multitudes  of  the  temples  neglected,  absolutely  un- 
visited except  on  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  the  moon,  in  many 
cases  not  then,  and  perhaps  not  even  at  the  New-Year,  when, 
if  ever,  the  Chinese  instinct  of  worship  prevails.  He  will  find 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  temples  the  remote  origin  of  which 
is  totally  lost  in  antiquity,  and  which  are  occasionally  repaired, 
but  of  which  the  people  can  give  no  account  and  for  which 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM  299 

they  have  no  regard.  He  will  find  hundreds  of  square  miles 
of  populous  territory  in  which  there  is  to  be  seen  scarcely  a 
single  priest,  either  Taoist  or  Buddhist.  In  these  regions  he 
will  generally  find  no  women  in  the  temples,  and  the  children 
allowed  to  grow  up  without  the  smallest  instruction  as  to  the 
necessity  of  propitiating  the  gods.  In  other  parts  of  China 
the  condition  of  things  is  totally  different,  and  the  external 
rites  of  idolatry  are  interwoven  into  the  smallest  details  of  the 
life  of  each  separate  day. 

The  religious  forces  of  Chinese  society  may  be  compared  to_ 
the  volcanic  forces  which  have  built  up  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
In  the  most  northern  and  western  members  of  the  group  the 
volcanoes  have  for  ages  been  extinct,  and  their  sites  marked 
only  by  broken-down  crater-pits  now  covered  with  luxuriant 
vegetation.  But  on  the  southeastern  member  of  the  group  the 
fires  are  still  in  active  operation,  and  continue  at  intervals  to 
shake  the  island  from  centre  to  circumference.  In  some  of 
the  oldest  parts  of  China  there  is  the  least  attention  paid  to 
temple  worship,  and  in  some  of  the  provinces  which  at  the 
time  of  China’s  greatest  glory  were  wild  and  barbarous  re- 
gions, idolatry  is  most  flourishing.  But  it  is  easy  to  be  misled 
by  surface  indications  such  as  these.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
they  may  pass  for  more  than  they  are  worth,  and  before  well- 
grounded  inferences  can  be  safely  drawn  the  subject  requires 
much  fuller  investigation  than  it  has  as  yet  received. 

To  “ reverence  the  gods,  but  to  keep  at  a distance  from 
them,”  was  the  advice  of  Confucius.  It  is  not  strange,  there- 
fore, that  his  followers  at  the  present  day  consider  respectful 
neglect  to  be  the  most  prudent  treatment  for  the  multitudinous 
and  incongruous  divinities  in  the  Chinese  pantheon.  When 
contrasted  with  the  Mongols  or  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese 
people  are  felt  to  be  comparatively  free  from  the  bias  of  re- 
ligion. It  is  common  to  see  over  the  doors  of  temples  the 
classical  expression,  “ Worship  the  gods  as  if  they  were  pres- 


3°° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ent.”  The  popular  instinct  has  taken  at  its  true  value  the 
uncertainty  conveyed  in  the  words  “ as  if,”  and  has  embodied 
them  in  current  sayings  which  accurately  express  the  state  of 
mind  of  the  mass  of  the  people : 

“ Worship  the  gods  as  if  they  came, 

But  if  you  don’t,  it’s  all  the  same.” 

“ Worship  the  gods  as  if  the  gods  were  there. 

But  if  you  worship  not,  the  gods  don’t  care.” 

One  step  beyond  respectful  neglect  of  the  gods  is  ceremonial 
reverence , which  consists  in  performing  a certain  routine  in  a 
certain  way,  with  no  other  thought  than  that  of  securing  cer- 
tain external  results  by  so  doing. 

The  idea  of  solemnity  appears  to  be  foreign  to  the  Chinese 
mind.  We  do  not  know  how  to  speak  of  it  without  express- 
ing an  idea  of  what  is  merely  decorum.  All  Chinese  worship 
of  Chinese  divinities,  of  which  we  have  ever  been  cognisant, 
has  appeared  to  be  either  routine  ceremonial,  or  else  a mere 
matter  of  barter — so  much  worship  for  so  much  benefit. 
When  “ the  old  man  of  the  sky  ” is  spoken  of  as  a being,  and 
to  be  reverenced,  the  uniform  presentation  of  this  aspect,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  others,  shows  in  a most  decisive  manner 
what  the  worship  really  is.  “ Because  we  have  our  food  and 
clothes  from  him,”  is  the  reply  when  a Chinese  is  asked 
why  he  makes  periodical  prostrations  to  this  “ person.”  Even 
when  the  individual  has  no  definite  opinions  as  to  the  real 
existence  of  such  a being,  this  does  not  prevent  his  conformity 
to  the  rite.  The  ancients  did  so,  and  he  does  as  they  did. 
Whether  it  is  of  any  use  “ who  knows  ? ” 

This  habit  of  looking  at  religious  ceremonial  from  a super- 
ficial standpoint  is  well  illustrated  in  a couplet  which  is  some- 
times posted,  in  a semi-satirical  sense,  upon  the  pillars  of  a 
neglected  shrine : 


A Chinese  Idol. 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


301 


“ When  the  temple  has  no  priest,  the  wind  sweeps  the  floor ; 

If  the  building  is  without  a light,  the  moon  acts  as  lamp,” 

The  gods  are  worshipped,  just  as  in  Western  lands  an  in- 
surance policy  is  taken  out,  because  it  is  the  safer  way.  “ It 
is  better  to  believe  that  the  gods  exist,”  says  the  popular  say- 
ing, "than  to  believe  that  they  do  not  exist;”  that  is,  if  they 
do  not  exist  at  all,  there  is  no  harm  done ; whereas  if  they  do 
exist,  and  are  neglected,  they  may  be  angry  and  revengeful. 
The  gods  are  supposed  to  be  actuated  by  the  motives  which 
are  known  to  actuate  men.  It  is  a proverb  that  one  who  has 
a sheep’s  head  (for  a temple  offering)  can  get  whatever  he 
desires,  and  also  that  those  divinities,  such  as  the  “Three 
Pure  Ones,”  who  have  nothing  special  to  bestow,  will  always 
be  poor,  while  the  goddess  of  mercy  and  the  god  of  war  will 
be  the  ones  honoured  and  enriched. 

Not  only  do  the  Chinese  base  the  argument  for  the  worship 
of  the  gods  upon  the  strictly  hypothetical  foundation,  “ it  can 
do  no  harm,  and  it  may  do  some  good,”  but  they  go  a step 
farther,  into  a region  where  it  is  totally  impossible  for  an  Oc- 
cidental mind  to  follow  them.  They  often  say  and  appear  to 
think,  “ If  you  believe  in  them,  then  there  really  are  gods ; 
but  if  you  do  not  believe  in  them,  then  there  are  none  ! ” This 
mode  of  speech  (a  mode  of  thought  it  can  scarcely  be  called) 
resembles  that  of  a Chinese  who  should  say : “ If  you  believe 
in  the  Emperor,  then  there  is  one ; but  if  you  do  not  believe 
in  one,  then  there  is  no  Emperor.”  When  this  analogy  is 
pointed  out,  the  Chinese  are  ready  enough  to  admit  it,  but  they 
do  not  appear  to  perceive  it  for  themselves  by  any  necessary 
process. 

There  are  many  Chinese  worshippers  who  are  to  be  seen 
making  a prostration  at  every  step,  sometimes  occupying  very 
long  periods  of  time  in  going  on  tedious  and  difficult  pilgrim- 
ages. When  asked  what  is  their  motive  for  submitting  to 
these  austerities,  they  will  tell  us  that  as  there  is  so  much  false 


302 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


worship  of  the  gods,  it  is  necessary  for  worshippers  to  demon- 
strate by  these  laborious  means  that  their  hearts  are  sincere. 
Whatever  may  be  said  in  regard  to  such  exceptional  instances, 
we  have  no  hesitation  in  affirming  that  all  that  has  been  al- 
ready said  of  the  absence  of  sincerity  among  the  Chinese,  in 
their  relations  to  one  another,  applies  with  even  greater  force  to 
much  of  their  worship.  The  photograph  of  a group  of  priests 
belonging  to  a temple  near  Peking  is  a perfect  masterpiece  in 
the  representation  of  serpentine  cunning.  Men  who  have  such 
faces  live  lives  to  correspond  with  their  faces. 

It  is  as  true  of  the  Chinese  as  it  has  been  of  other  nations 
in  heathenism,  that  they  have  conceived  of  their  gods  as  alto- 
gether such  as  they  are  themselves,  and  not  without  reason, 
for  many  of  the  gods  are  the  countrymen  of  those  who  wor- 
ship them.  The  writer  once  saw  a proclamation  posted  in  the 
name  of  the  goddess  of  mercy,  informing  the  world  that  repre- 
sentations had  been  made  at  the  court  of  heaven  to  the  effect 
that  mankind  were  waxing  very  vicious.  The  “ Pearly  Em- 
peror ” of  the  divinities,  upon  hearing  this,  was  very  angry,  and 
in  a loud  tone  reviled  all  the  subordinate  gods  because  they 
had  failed  to  reform  mankind  by  exhortation  ! Human  beings 
are  supposed  to  be  surrounded  by  a cloud  of  spirits,  powerful 
for  evil,  but  subject  to  bribes,  flattery,  cajolery,  and  liable  to 
be  cheated.  A Chinese  is  anxious  to  take  advantage  of  the 
man  with  whom  he  makes  a bargain,  and  he  is  not  less  anx- 
ious to  take  advantage — if  he  can — of  the  god  with  whom  he 
makes  a bargain — in  other  words,  the  god  to  whom  he  prays. 
Perhaps  he  purchases  felicity  by  subscribing  towards  the  re- 
pair of  a temple,  but  he  not  improbably  has  his  subscription 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  cash  registered  as  a thousand.  The 
god  will  take  the  account  as  it  stands.  While  the  temple  is  in 
process  of  repair  a piece  of  red  paper  is  perhaps  pasted  over 
the  eyes  of  each  god,  that  he  may  not  see  the  confusion  by 
which  he  is  surrounded  and  which  is  not  considered  respectful. 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


3°3 


If  the  temple  is  situated  at  the  outskirts  of  a village,  and  is  in 
too  frequent  use  by  thieves  as  a place  in  which  to  divide  their 
booty,  the  door  may  be  almost  or  even  altogether  bricked  up, 
and  the  god  left  to  communicate  with  the  universe  as  best  he 
can. 

The  familiar  case  of  the  kitchen-god,  who  ascends  to  heaven 
at  the  end  of  the  year  to  make  his  report  of  the  behaviour 
of  the  family,  but  whose  lips  are  first  smeared  with  glutinous 
candy  to  prevent  his  reporting  the  bad  deeds  which  he  has 
seen,  is  a typical  instance  of  a Chinese  outwitting  his  celestial 
superiors.  In  the  same  way  a boy  is  sometimes  called  by  a 
girl’s  name  to  make  the  unintelligent  evil  spirits  think  that  he 
is  a girl,  in  order  to  secure  his  lease  of  life.  Mr.  Baber  speaks 
of  the  murder  of  female  infants  in  Szechuan,  whose  spirits  are 
subsequently  appeased  by  mock  money,  which  is  burned,  that 
it  may  be  conveyed  to  them  for  their  expenses ! The  temples 
to  the  goddess  who  bestows  children,  unlike  most  other  tem- 
ples, are  often  frequented  by  women.  Some  of  these  temples 
are  provided  with  many  little  clay  images  of  male  children, 
some  in  the  arms  of  their  patron  goddess,  and  others  disposed 
like  goods  on  a shelf.  It  is  the  practice  of  Chinese  women, 
on  visiting  these  temples,  to  break  off  the  parts  which  distin- 
guish the  sex  of  the  child  and  eat  them,  so  as  to  insure  the 
birth  of  a son.  In  case  there  are  large  numbers  of  little  im- 
ages, as  just  mentioned,  it  is  with  a view  to  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  women  who  frequent  the  temple,  each  of  whom 
will  take  an  image,  but  it  must  be  stolen  and  not  openly  carried 
off.  In  case  the  desired  child  is  born,  the  woman  is  expected 
to  show  her  gratitude  by  returning  two  other  images  in  the 
place  of  that  which  she  stole!  Chinese  sailors  suppose  that 
the  dreaded  typhoons  of  the  China  seas  are  caused  by  malig- 
nant spirits,  which  lie  in  wait  to  catch  the  junks  as  they  navi- 
gate the  dangerous  waters.  When  the  storm  reaches  a pitch 
of  extreme  violence,  it  is  said  that  it  is  the  habit  of  the  mari- 


304 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


ners  to  have  a paper  junk  made  of  the  exact  pattern  of  their 
own,  and  complete  in  all  its  details.  This  paper  junk  is  then 
cast  into  the  sea  at  the  point  of  maximum  disturbance,  in 
order  that  the  angry  water-spirits  may  be  deceived  into  think- 
ing that  this  is  the  vessel  of  which  they  are  in  quest,  and  thus 
allow  the  real  one  to  escape! 

The  custom  prevails  in  many  parts  of  China,  upon  occasion 
of  the  spread  of  some  fatal  epidemic  like  cholera,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  or  seventh  moon  to  hold  a New-Year’s 
celebration.  This  is  with  a view  to  deceiving  the  god  of  the 
pestilence,  who  will  be  surprised  to  find  that  he  is  wrong  in 
his  calculations  as  to  the  time  of  year,  and  will  depart,  allow- 
ing the  plague  to  cease.  This  practice  is  so  well  understood 
that  the  phrase  “ autumnal  second  month  ” is  understood  to 
be  a periphrasis  for  “ never.”  Another  method  of  hoodwink- 
ing a divinity  is  for  a man  to  creep  under  a table  upon  which 
are  placed  offerings,  and  to  put  his  head  through  a round 
hole  made  for  that  purpose.  The  god  will  think  that  this  is  a 
genuine  case  of  offering  a man’s  head  in  sacrifice,  and  will  act 
accordingly.  The  man  will  withdraw  his  head,  and  enjoy  his 
well-earned  felicity. 

In  one  case  of  which  we  happened  to  be  cognisant,  where  a 
village  decided  to  remove  the  gods  from  a temple  and  use  it 
for  a schoolhouse,  they  had  hoped  to  pay  a considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  expenses  of  the  alterations  by  the  “ silver  ” to 
be  extracted  from  the  hearts  of  the  late  gods.  But  the  simple- 
minded  rustics  were  not  familiar  with  the  ways  of  Chinese 
gods  and  of  those  who  make  them,  who  are  like  unto  them ; 
for  when  they  came  to  search  for  the  precious  hearts  they 
were  not  found  right,  but  consisted  simply  of  lumps  of  pew- 
ter! Cases  no  doubt  occur  in  which  the  priests  do  conceal 
treasures  in  the  images  of  their  gods,  and  they  are  matched 
by  corresponding  cases  in  which  the  temples  are  robbed,  and 
the  gods  either  carried  off  bodily  or  pulverised  on  the  spot. 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


3°5 


Violent  treatment  of  Chinese  divinities  on  the  part  of  those 
who  might  be  expected  to  worship  them,  is  by  no  means  un- 
known. We  have  heard  of  an  instance  in  which  a District 
Magistrate  tried  a case  which  involved  a priest,  and  by  im- 
plication the  Buddha  which  was  the  occupant  of  the  temple. 
This  god  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the  magistrate  and 
told  to  kneel,  which  he  failed  to  do,  whereupon  the  magistrate 
ordered  him  to  be  beaten  five  hundred  blows,  by  which  time 
the  god  was  reduced  to  a heap  of  dust,  and  judgment  was 
pronounced  against  him  by  default. 

Nearly  every  year  petitions  are  incessantly  put  up  to  the 
rain-god  to  exert  his  powers  on  the  parched  earth,  which  can- 
not be  planted  until  there  is  a rainfall.  After  prayers  have 
been  long  continued  with  no  result,  it  is  common  for  the 
villagers  to  administer  a little  wholesome  correction  by  drag- 
ging the  image  of  the  god  of  war  out  of  his  temple  and  setting 
him  down  in  the  hottest  place  to  be  found,  that  he  may  know 
what  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  really  is  at  first  hand, 
and  not  by  hearsay  only.  The  habit  of  exhibiting  undisguised 
dissatisfaction  with  the  behaviour  of  the  gods  is  referred  to 
in  the  current  saying,  “ If  you  do  not  mend  the  roof  of  your 
house  in  the  third  or  fourth  moon,  you  will  be  reviling  the  god 
of  floods  in  the  fifth  moon  or  the  sixth.” 

We  have  heard  of  an  instance  in  which  the  people  of  a 
large  city  in  China,  having  been  visited  by  an  epidemic  of 
great  severity,  decided  that  this  was  owing  to  the  malevolent 
influence  of  a particular  divinity  of  the  district.  Banding 
themselves  together  precisely  as  if  the  god  were  a living  bully, 
they  set  upon  him  and  reduced  him  to  his  original  elements. 
Of  the  accuracy  of  this  narrative  we  have  no  proofs  except 
its  currency,  but  that  appears  to  be  sufficient  in  itself.  The 
whole  proceeding  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  Chinese  notions 
about  gods  and  spirits. 

In  view  of  facts  such  as  those  to  which  we  have  been 


3°6 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


directing  the  reader’s  attention,  it  might  be  most  natural  for 
one  who  was  not  familiar  with  the  Chinese  character,  to  draw 
the  inference  that  it  cannot  be  possible  that  the  Chinese 
have  any  religion  at  all.  This  statement  has  indeed  been 
often  made  in  explicit  language.  In  Mr.  Meadows’  work  on 
“ The  Chinese  and  Their  Rebellions,”  he  quotes  some  of  the 
too  sweeping  generalisations  of  M.  Hue  only  to  denounce 
them,  affirming  them  to  be  “ baseless  calumny  of  the  higher 
life  of  a great  portion  of  the  human  race.”  Mr.  Meadows 
is  ready  enough  to  admit  that  the  Chinese  are  not  attracted 
either  to  the  bare  results  of  centuries  of  doctrinal  disputes  or 
to  the  conduct  of  the  nations  which  accept  those  results  as 
their  creed,  but  emphatically  denies  the  assertion  that  the 
Chinese  have  “ no  longing  for  immortality,  no  cordial  admira- 
tion of  what  is  good  and  great,  no  unswerving  and  unshrinking 
devotion  to  those  who  have  been  good  and  great,  no  craving, 
no  yearning  of  the  soul  to  reverence  something  high  and  holy.” 
Sir  Thomas  Wade,  on  the  other  hand,  whose  long  familiarity 
with  China  and  the  Chinese  might  be  supposed  to  entitle  him 
to  speak  with  authority  on  so  plain  a question  as  whether  the 
Chinese  have  or  have  not  a religion,  has  recently  published 
his  opinion  as  follows : “ If  religion  is  held  to  mean  more  than 
mere  ethics,  I deny  that  the  Chinese  have  a religion.  They 
have  indeed  a cult,  or  rather  a mixture  of  cults,  but  no  creed  ; 
innumerable  varieties  of  puerile  idolatry,  at  which  they  are 
ready  enough  to  laugh,  but  which  they  dare  not  disregard.” 
Into  the  interesting  and  by  no  means  easily  answered  ques- 
tion here  raised  we  do  not  feel  required  to  enter.  It  would 
be  easy  to  discuss  it  at  great  length,  but  we  are  not  certain 
that  any  light  would  be  thrown  upon  it.  In  our  view  there  is 
a practical  method  of  approaching  the  matter,  which  will  serve 
our  purpose  much  better  than  abstract  discussion.  Taoism 
and  Buddhism  have  greatly  affected  the  Chinese,  but  the 
Chinese  are  not  Taoists  as  such,  neither  are  they  Buddhists. 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


307 

They  are  Confucianists,  and  whatever  may  be  added  to  their 
faith,  or  whatever  may  be  taken  away  by  the  other  systems  of 
thought,  the  Chinese  always  remain  Confucianists.  We  shall 
close  by  endeavouring  to  show  in  what  respects  Confucianism 
comes  short  of  being  a religion  such  as  the  Chinese  ought  to 
have.  In  order  to  do  this,  we  shall  quote  the  language  of  a 
distinguished  Chinese  scholar,  whose  conclusions  cannot  be 
lightly  set  aside. 

At  the  end  of  his  “ Systematical  Digest  of  the  Doctrines  of 
Confucius,”  Dr.  Ernst  Faber  devotes  a section  to  The  Defects 
and  Errors  of  Confucianism,  which  are  set  forth,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  is  acknowledged  that  there  is  in  Confucianism 
much  that  is  excellent  concerning  the  relations  of  man,  and 
many  points  in  which  the  doctrines  of  Christian  revelation  are 
almost  echoed.  We  quote  the  four-and-twenty  points  speci- 
fied, adding  here  and  there  a few  words  of  comment. 

1.  “Confucianism  recognises  no  relation  to  a living  god.” 

2.  “ There  is  no  distinction  made  between  the  human  soul 
and  the  body,  nor  is  there  any  clear  definition  of  man,  either 
from  a physical  or  from  a physiological  point  of  view.” 

The  absence  of  any  clear  doctrine  as  to  the  soul  of  man  is 
very  perplexing  to  the  foreign  student  of  Confucianism.  The 
ultimate  outcome  of  its  teaching,  in  the  case  of  many  of  the 
common  people,  is  that  they  know  nothing  about  any  soul  at 
all,  except  in  the  sense  of  animal  vitality.  When  a man  dies, 
there  is  classical  authority  for  the  statement  that  his  “ soul  ” 
goes  upwards  towards  heaven,  and  his  “ animal  soul  ” goes 
into  the  earth.  But  a simpler  theory  is  that  so  constantly 
advanced,  and  which  is  entirely  harmonious  with  the  agnostic 
materialism  of  the  true  Confucianist,  that  “ the  soul  ” or  breath 
dissolves  into  the  air,  and  the  flesh  into  the  dust.  It  is  fre- 
quently quite  impossible  to  interest  a Chinese  in  the  question 
whether  he  has  three  souls,  one  soul,  or  no  soul  at  all.  To 
him  the  elucidation  of  such  a matter  is  invested  with  the  same 


3°8 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


kind  and  degree  of  interest  which  he  would  feel  in  learning 
which  particular  muscles  of  the  body  produce  the  movement 
of  the  organ  concerned  in  eating.  As  long  as  the  process  is 
allowed  to  go  on  with  comfort,  he  does  not  care  in  the  smallest 
degree  by  what  name  the  anatomist  designates  the  muscular 
fibres  which  assist  the  result.  In  like  manner,  as  long  as  the 
Chinese  has  enough  to  do  to  look  after  the  interest  of  his 
digestive  apparatus,  and  that  of  those  who  are  dependent 
upon  him,  he  is  very  likely  to  care  nothing  either  about  his 
“ souls  ” (if  he  has  any)  or  about  theirs,  unless  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  matter  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  price  of 
grain. 

3.  “ There  is  no  explanation  given  why  it  is  that  some  men 
are  born  as  saints,  others  as  ordinary  mortals.” 

4.  “ All  men  are  said  to  possess  the  disposition  and  strength 
necessary  for  the  attainment  of  moral  perfection,  but  the  con- 
trast with  the  actual  state  remains  unexplained.” 

5.  “ There  is  wanting  in  Confucianism  a decided  and  serious 
tone  in  its  treatment  of  the  doctrine  of  sin,  for,  with  the 
exception  of  moral  retribution  in  social  life,  it  mentions  no 
punishment  for  sin.” 

6.  “ Confucianism  is  generally  devoid  of  a deeper  insight 
into  sin  and  evil.” 

7.  “ Confucianism  finds  it  therefore  impossible  to  explain 
death.” 

8.  “ Confucianism  knows  no  mediator,  none  that  could 
restore  original  nature  in  accordance  with  the  ideal  which  man 
finds  in  himself.” 

9.  “ Prayer  and  its  ethical  power  find  no  place  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Confucius.” 

10.  “Though  confidence  is  indeed  frequently  insisted  upon, 
its  presupposition,  truthfulness  in  speaking,  is  never  practically 
urged,  but  rather  the  reverse.” 

11.  “Polygamy  is  presupposed  and  tolerated.” 


POLYTHEISM , PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


3°9 


12.  "Polytheism  is  sanctioned.’’ 

13.  “ Fortune-telling,  choosing  of  days,  omens,  dreams,  and 
other  illusions  (phoenixes,  etc.)  are  believed  in.” 

14.  “Ethics  are  confounded  with  external  ceremonies,  and 
a precise  despotic  political  form.” 

15.  “The  position  which  Confucius  assumed  towards  an- 
cient institutions  is  a capricious  -one.” 

16.  “The  assertion  that  certain  musical  melodies  influence 
the  morals  of  the  people  is  ridiculous.” 

17.  “The  influence  of  mere  good  example  is  exaggerated, 
and  Confucius  himself  proves  it  most  of  all.” 

If  it  be  true,  as  Confucian  ethics  claim,  that  the  prince  is 
the  vessel  as  the  people  are  the  water ; that  when  the  cup  is 
round  the  water  will  be  round,  and  when  the  dish  is  flat  the 
water  will  be  flat — it  seems  hard  to  explain  how  the  great  men 
of  China  have  not  exerted  a stronger  influence  in  the  way  of 
modifying  the  character  of  those  who  study  their  lives.  If 
example  is  really  so  powerful  as  Confucianists  represent,  how 
does  it  happen  that  as  seen  in  its  effects  it  is  so  comparatively 
inert  ? The  virtual  deification  of  the  “ superior  man,”  as 
mentioned  below  under  No.  20,  is  matched  by  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  any  mediator,  as  already  pointed  out  under  No.  8. 
No  matter  how  “superior”  the  sage  may  be,  he  is  obliged  to 
confine  himself  to  giving  good  advice.  If  the  advice  is  not 
taken,  he  not  only  cannot  help  it,  but  there  is  no  further 
advice  given. 

To  us  that  has  always  appeared  to~te  a singularly  suggest- 
ive passage  in  which  Confucius  said : “ I do  not  open  up  the 
truth  to  one  who  is  not  eager  to  get  knowledge,  nor  help  out 
any  one  who  is  not  anxious  to  explain  himself.  When  I have 
presented  one  corner  of  a subject  to  any  one,  and  he  cannot 
from  it  learn  the  other  three,  I do  not  repeat  the  lesson.”  The 
advice  which  he  gives  is  for  superior  men  only.  Such  advice  is 
excellent,  but  it  is  by  no  means  a prophylactic.  When  it  has 


3ID 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


failed  to  act  as  such,  then  what  is  wanted  is  a restorative.  It 
is  idle  to  stand  over  the  traveller  who,  having  fallen  among 
thieves,  is  stripped  and  wounded,  and  to  discourse  to  him  of 
the  importance  of  joining  friendly  caravans,  of  the  unadvisa- 
bility of  sustaining  serious  lesions  of  the  tissues,  by  which 
much  blood  is  likely  to  be  lost  and  the  nervous  centres  injured. 
The  wounded  man,  already  faint  from  loss  of  blood,  knows 
all  that ; indeed,  he  knew  it  all  the  while.  What  he  needs 
now  is  not  retrospective  lectures  on  the  consequences  of  vio- 
lating natural  laws,  but  oil,  wine,  a place  of  refuge  for  a pos- 
sible recover}-,  and  above  all,  a wise  and  helpful  friend.  For 
the  physically  disabled,  Confucianism  may  at  times  do  some- 
thing ; for  the  morally  and  spiritually  wounded  it  does  and 
can  do  nothing. 

1 8.  “In  Confucianism  the  system  of  social  life  is  tyranny. 
Women  are  slaves.  Children  have  no  rights  in  relation  to 
their  parents,  whilst  subjects  are  placed  in  the  position  of 
children  with  regard  to  their  superiors.” 

19.  “ Filial  piety  is  exaggerated  into  deification  of  parents.” 

20.  “ The  net  result  of  Confucius’  system,  as  drawn  by  him- 
self, is  the  worship  of  genius,  i.e.,  deification  of  man.” 

2 1.  “ There  is,  with  the  exception  of  ancestral  worship,  which 
is  void  of  any  true  ethical  value,  no  clear  conception  of  the 
dogma  of  immortality.” 

22.  “ All  rewards  are  expected  in  this  world,  so  that  egotism 
is  unconsciously  fostered,  and  if  not  avarice  at  least  ambition.” 

23.  “The  whole  system  of  Confucianism  offers  no  comfort 
to  ordinary  mortals,  either  in  life  or  in  death.” 

24.  “The  history  of  China  shows  that  Confucianism  is  in- 

capable of  effecting  for  the  people  a new  birth  to  a higher  life 
and  nobler  efforts,  and  Confucianism  is  now  in  practical  life 
quite  alloyed  with  Shamanistic  and  Buddhistic  ideas  and 
practices.”  ^ 

Of  the  strange  intermixture  of  different  forms  of  faith  in 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


3” 

China  we  have  already  spoken.  That  neither  Confucianism 
nor  either  of  its  co-religions  is  capable  of  “ effecting  for  the 
people  a new  birth  to  a higher  life  and  nobler  efforts  ” is  well 
recognised  by  the  Chinese  themselves.  This  is  strikingly 
shown  in  one  of  their  fables,  the  literary  authorship  of  which 
we  have  not  ascertained. 

According  to  this  account,  Confucius,  Laotze,  and  Buddha 
met  one  day  in  the  land  of  the  Immortals,  and  were  lamenting 
the  fact  that  in  those  degenerate  times  their  excellent  doctrines 
did  not  seem  to  make  any  headway  in  the  Central  Empire. 
After  prolonged  discussion,  it  was  agreed  that  the  reason  must 
be  that  while  the  doctrines  themselves  are  recognised  as  admi- 
rable, human  nature  is  inadequate  to  live  up  to  them  without 
a constant  model.  It  was  accordingly  decided  that  each  of 
the  founders  of  these  schools  of  instruction  should  materialise 
himself,  go  down  to  earth,  and  try  to  find  some  one  who 
could  do  what  it  was  so  necessary  to  have  done.  This  plan 
was  at  once  carried  into  effect,  and  in  process  of  time,  while 
wandering  about  the  earth,  Confucius  came  on  an  old  man  of 
venerable  appearance,  who,  however,  did  not  rise  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  sage,  but  inviting  the  latter  to  be  seated,  en- 
gaged him  in  a conversation  on  the  doctrines  of  antiquity  and 
the  degree  to  which  they  were  at  that  time  neglected  and 
practised.  In  his  discourse  the  old  man  showed  such  pro- 
found acquaintance  with  the  tenets  of  the  ancients,  and  dis- 
played such  vast  penetration  of  judgment,  that  Confucius  was 
greatly  delighted,  and  after  a long  interviety  retired.  But 
even  when  the  sage  took  his  leave,  the  old  man  did  not  rise. 
Having  found  Laotze-  and  Buddha,  who  had  been  altogether 
unsuccessful  in  their  search,  Confucius  related  to  them  his 
adventure,  and  recommended  that  each  of  them  should  in 
turn  visit  the  sitting  philosopher,  and  ascertain  whether  he 
was  as  well  versed  in  their  doctrines  as  in  those  of  Confucius. 
To  his  unmixed  delight,  Laotze  found  the  old  man  to  be 


312 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


almost  as  familiar  with  the  tenets  of  Taoism  as  its  founder, 
and  a model  of  eloquence  and  fervour.  Like  Confucius, 
Laotze  was  struck  by  the  fact  that  although  maintaining  a 
most  respectful  attitude,  the  old  man  did  not  rise  from  his 
place.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  Buddha,  who  met  with  the 
same  surprising  and  gratifying  success.  The  old  man  still  did 
not  rise,  but  he  exhibited  an  insight  into  the  inner  meaning  of 
Buddhism  such  as  not  had  been  seen  for  ages. 

When  the  three  founders  of  religion  met  to  consult,  they 
were  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that  this  rare  and  astonishing 
old  man  was  the  very  one,  not  only  to  recommend  each  of 
the  “ three  religions,”  but  also  to  demonstrate  that  “ the  three 
religions  are  really  one.”  Accordingly  they  all  three  once 
more  presented  themselves  before  the  old  man  in  company 
with  each  other.  They  explained  the  object  of  their  previous 
visits,  and  the  lofty  hopes  which  the  old  man’s  wisdom  had 
excited,  that  through  him  all  three  religions  might  be  revived, 
and  at  last  reduced  to  practice.  The  old  man,  still  seated, 
listened  respectfully  and  attentively,  and  replied  as  follows: 
“Venerable  sages,  your  benevolence  is  high  as  heaven  and 
deep  as  the  seas.  Your  plan  is  admirably  profound  in  its 
wisdom.  But  you  have  made  an  unfortunate  selection  in  the 
agent  through  whom  you  wish  to  accomplish  this  mighty  re- 
form. It  is  true  that  I have  looked  into  the  books  of  Reason 
and  of  the  Law,  and  into  the  Classics.  It  is  also  true  that  I 
have  a partial  perception  of  their  sublimity  and  unity.  But 
there  is  one  circumstance  of  which  you  have  not  taken  ac- 
count. Perhaps  you  are  not  aware  of  it.  It  is  only  from  my 
waist  upward  that  I am  a man  ; below  that  point  I am  made 
of  stone.  My  forte  is  to  discuss  the  duties  of  men  from  all  the 
various  points  of  view,  but  I am  so  unfortunately  constituted 
that  I can  never  reduce  any  of  them  to  practice.”  Confucius, 
Laotze,  and  Buddha  sighed  deeply,  and  vanished  from  the 
earth,  and  since  that  day  no  effort  has  been  made  to  find  a 


POLYTHEISM,  PANTHEISM,  ATHEISM 


3*3 

mortal  who  is  able  to  exhibit  in  his  life  the  teachings  of  the 
three  religions. 

A comparison  has  often  been  made  between  the  condition 
of  China  at  the  present  time,  and  that  of  the  Roman  Empire 
during  the  first  century  of  our  era.  That  the  moral  state  of 
China  now  is  far  higher  than  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  then, 
scarcely  admits  of  a rational  doubt,  but  in  China,  as  in  Rome, 
religious  faith  has  reached  the  point  of  decay.  Of  China  it 
might  be  said,  as  Gibbon  remarked  of  Rome,  that  to  the  com- 
mon people  all  religions  are  equally  true,  to  the  philosopher 
all  are  equally  false,  and  to  the  magistrate  all  are  equally  use- 
ful. Of  the  Emperor  of  China,  as  of  the  Roman  Emperor,  it 
might  be  affirmed  that  he  is  “ at  once  a high-priest,  an  atheist, 
and  a god  ”!  To  such  a state  has  Confucianism,  mixed  with 
polytheism  and  pantheism,  brought  the  Empire. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  there  is  one  thing  which  is  worse 
than  pure  atheism,  and  that  is  entire  indifference  as  to  whether 
atheism  is  true.  In  China  polytheism  and  atheism  are  but 
opposite  facets  of  the  same  die,  and  are  more  or  less  con- 
sciously held  for  true  by  multitudes  of  educated  Chinese,  and 
with  no  sense  of  contradiction.  Its  absolute  indifference  to 
the  profoundest  spiritual  truths  in  the  nature  of  man  is  the 
most  melancholy  characteristic  of  the  Chinese  mind,  its  ready 
acceptance  of  a body  without  a soul,  of  a soul  without  a spirit, 
of  a spirit  without  a life,  of  a cosmos  without  a cause,  a Uni- 
verse without  a God. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA  AND  HER  PRESENT  NEEDS. 


HE  Confucian  Classics  are  the  chart  by  which  the  rulers 


of  China  have  endeavoured  to  navigate  the  ship  of  state. 
It  is  the  best  chart  ever  constructed  by  man,  and  perhaps  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say,  with  the  late  Dr.  Williams,  Dr.  Legge, 
and  others,  that  its  authors  may  have  had  in  some  sense  a 
divine  guidance.  With  what  success  the  Chinese  have  navi- 
gated their  craft,  into  what  waters  they  have  sailed,  and  in 
what  direction  they  are  at  present  steering — these  are  ques- 
tions of  capital  importance  now  that  China  is  coming  into 
intimate  relations  with  so  many  Western  states,  and  seems 
likely  in  the  future  to  exert  an  influence  increasingly  great. 

It  has  been  said  that  “ there  are  six  indications  of  the  moral 
life  of  a community,  any  one  of  which  is  significant ; when 
they  all  agree  in  their  testimony  they  afford  an  infallible  test 
of  its  true  character.  These  are : (i)  the  condition  of  industry ; 
(2)  the  social  habits;  (3)  the  position  of  woman  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  family ; (4)  the  organisation  of  government  and 
the  character  of  the  rulers;  (5)  the  state  of  public  education; 
(6)  the  practical  bearing  of  religious  worship  on  actual  life.” 

In  the  discussion  of  the  various  characteristics  of  the  Chi- 
nese which  have  attracted  our  notice,  each  of  the  foregoing 
points  has  been  incidentally  illustrated,  albeit  incompletely  and 
without  that  observance  of  proportion  necessary  in  a full  treat- 
ment of  these  topics.  In  a survey  of  the  Chinese  character 
the  field  of  view  is  so  extensive  that  many  subjects  must  be 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


3r5 

passed  by  altogether.  The  characteristics  which  have  been 
selected  are  intended  merely  as  points  through  which  lines 
may  be  drawn  to  aid  in  outlining  the  whole.  There  are  many 
additional  “ characteristics  ” which  ought  to  be  included  in  a 
full  presentation  of  the  Chinese  as  they  are. 

The  greater  part  of  the  illustrative  incidents  which  have 
been  already  cited  in  exemplification  of  various  “ character- 
istics” of  the  Chinese  have  been  mentioned  because  they 
appeared  upon  examination  to  be  typical.  They  are  like 
bones  of  a skeleton,  which  must  be  fitted  into  their  place  be- 
fore the  whole  structure  can  be  seen.  It  will  not  do  to  ignore 
them,  unless  perhaps  it  can  be  shown  that  they  are  not  bones 
at  all,  but  merely  plaster-of-Paris  imitations.  It  may  indeed 
be  objected  that  the  true  place  of  each  separate  bone  has  been 
mistaken,  and  that  others  which  are  important  modifiers  of 
the  total  result  have  not  been  adjusted  to  their  proper  places. 
This  criticism,  which  is  a perfectly  just  one,  we  not  only  admit 
but  expressly  affirm,  declaring  that  it  is  not  possible  to  gain  a 
complete  idea  of  the  Chinese  from  selected  “ characteristics,” 
any  more  than  it  is  possible  to  gain  a correct  idea  of  a human 
countenance  from  descriptive  essays  on  its  eyes,  its  nose,  or  its 
chin.  But  at  the  same  time  we  must  remind  the  reader  that 
the  judgments  expressed  have  not  been  hastily  formed,  that 
they  are  based  upon  a mass  of  observations  far  in  excess  of 
what  has  been  referred  to,  and  that  in  many  cases  the  opin- 
ions might  have  been  made  indefinitely  stronger,  and  still 
have  been  fully  warranted  by  the  facts.  These  facts  are  as 
patent  to  one  who  comes  within  their  range  as  a North  China 
dust-storm,  which  fills  the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  the  hair, 
and  the  clothing  with  an  almost  impalpable  powder,  often 
surcharging  the  atmosphere  with  electricity,  and  sometimes 
rendering  lamps  necessary  at  noonday.  One  may  be  very 
wrong  in  his  theory  of  the  causes  of  this  phenomenon,  but 
altogether  right  in  his  description  of  it.  But  there  is  this  im- 


3l6 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


portant  difference  between  the  observation  of  physical  and  of 
moral  phenomena : the  former  force  themselves  on  the  atten- 
tion of  every  human  being,  while  the  latter  are  perceived  only 
by  those  whose  opportunities  are  favourable,  and  whose  facul- 
ties are  directed  towards  the  things  that  are  to  be  seen. 

The  truth  is  that  the  phenomena  of  Chinese  life  are  of  a 
contradictory  character,  and  whoever  looks  upon  one  face  of 
the  shield,  ignoring  the  other,  will  infallibly  judge  erroneously, 
and  yet  will  never  come  to  a perception  of  the  fact  that  he  is 
wrong.  The  union  of  two  apparently  irreconcilable  views  in 
one  concept  is  not  an  easy  task,  but  it  is  often  a very  neces- 
sary one,  and  nowhere  is  it  more  necessary  than  in  China, 
where  it  is  so  difficult  to  see  even  one  side  completely,  not  to 
speak  of  both. 

Of  the  lofty  moral  quality  of  Confucianism  we  have  already 
spoken.  That  it  produces  many  individuals  possessing  a high 
moral  character  we  are  prepared  to  believe.  That  is  what 
ought  to  be  expected  from  so  excellent  a system  of  morals. 
But  does  it  produce  such  characters  on  any  considerable  scale, 
and  with  any  approach  to  uniformity?  The  real  character  of 
any  human  being  can  be  discovered  by  answering  three  ques- 
tions : What  is  his  relation  to  himself  ? What  is  his  relation 
to  his  fellow-men  ? What  is  his  relation  to  the  object  of  his 
worship  ? Through  these  three  fixed  points  the  circle  defining 
his  true  position  may  be  drawn.  Those  who  may  have  fol- 
lowed us  thus  far  know  already  what  replies  we  find  in  the 
Chinese  of  to-day  to  these  test  questions.  His  relations  both 
to  himself  and  to  others  are  marked  by  an  absence  of  sincer- 
ity, and  his  relations  to  others  by  an  absence  of  altruism ; his 
relations  to  the  objects  of  his  worship  are  those  of  a polythe- 
ist, a pantheist,  and  an  agnostic. 

What  the  Chinese  lack  is  not  intellectual  ability.  It  is  not 
patience,  practicality,  nor  cheerfulness,  for  in  all  these  quali- 
ties they  greatly  excel.  What  they  do  lack  is  Character  and 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


3*7 

Conscience.  Some  Chinese  officials  cannot  be  tempted  by 
any  bribe,  and  refuse  to  commit  a wrong  that  will  never  be 
found  out,  because  “ Heaven  knows,  earth  knows,  you  know, 
and  I know.”  But  how  many  Chinese  could  be  found  who 
would  resist  the  pressure  brought  upon  them  to  recommend 
for  employment  a relative  who  was  known  to  be  incompetent  ? 
Imagine  for  a moment  the  domestic  consequences  of  such  resist- 
ance, and  is  it  strange  that  any  Chinese  should  dread  to  face 
them  ? But  what  Chinese  would  ever  think  of  carrying  theo- 
retical morals  into  such  a region  as  that  ? When  it  is  seen 
what  a part  parasitism  and  nepotism  play  in  the  administration 
of  China,  civil,  military,  and  commercial,  is  it  any  wonder  that 
Chinese  gate-keepers  and  constables  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon  for  the  honest  performance  of  their  duties  ? 

He  who  wishes  to  learn  the  truth  about  the  moral  condition 
of  the  Chinese  can  do  so  by  the  aid  of  the  Chinese  themselves, 
who,  however  ready  to  cover  their  own  shortcomings  and 
those  of  their  friends,  are  often  singularly  frank  in  confessing 
the  weak  points  in  the  national  character.  Some  of  these 
descriptions  of  the  Chinese  by  other  Chinese  have  often  served 
to  us  as  reminders  of  a conversation  upon  which  Carlyle 
dwells  with  evident  enjoyment,  in  one  of  the  volumes  of  his 
“ Life  of  Frederick  the  Great.”  That  monarch  had  a school- 
inspector,  of  whom  he  was  rather  fond,  and  with  whom  he 
liked  to  talk  a little.  “Well,  M.  Sulzer,  how  do  your  schools 
get  on  ? ” asked  the  King  one  day.  “ How  goes  our  educa- 
tion business  ? ” “ Surely,  not  ill,  your  Majesty,  and  much 

better  in  late  years,”  answered  Sulzer.  “ In  late  years,  why?  ” 
“Well,  your  Majesty,  in  former  times,  the  notion  being  that 
mankind  were  naturally  inclined  to  evil,  a system  of  severity 
prevailed  in  schools ; but  now,  when  we  recognise  that  the  in- 
born inclination  of  men  is  rather  to  good  than  to  evil,  school- 
masters have  adopted  a more  generous  procedure.”  “ Incli- 
nation rather  to  good  ! ” said  Frederick,  shaking  his  old  head, 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


318 

with  a sad  smile.  “ Alas,  dear  Sulzer,  I see  you  don’t  know 
that  damned  race  of  creatures.”  (Er  kennt  nicht  diese  ver- 
da,7nmte  Race.) 

Chinese  society  resembles  some  of  the  scenery  in  China. 
At  a little  distance  it  appears  fair  and  attractive.  Upon  a 
nearer  approach,  however,  there  is  invariably  much  that  is 
shabby  and  repulsive,  and  the  air  is  full  of  odours  which  are 
not  fragrant.  No  photograph  does  justice  to  Chinese  scenery, 
for  though  photography  has  been  described  as  “justice  with- 
out mercy,”  this  is  not  true  of  Chinese  photography,  in  which 
the  dirt  and  the  smells  are  omitted. 

There  is  no  country  in  the  world  where  the  symbol  denoting 
happiness  is  so  constantly  before  the  eye  as  in  China.  But  it 
requires  no  long  experience  to  discover  that  it  is  a true  obser- 
vation that  Chinese  happiness  is  all  on  the  outside.  We  believe 
it  to  be  a criticism  substantially  just  that  there  are  no  homes 
in  Asia. 

In  contemplating  the  theory  of  Chinese  society,  and  the 
way  in  which  that  theory  is  reduced  to  fact,  we  are  often  re- 
minded of  those  stone  tablets  to  be  seen  at  the  spot  where  the 
principal  highways  cross  streams.  The  object  of  these  tablets 
is  to  preserve  in  “ everlasting  remembrance  ” the  names  of 
those  by  whom  the  bridges  were  erected  and  repaired.  Some- 
times there  are  half  a dozen  such  stones  in  immediate  prox- 
imity, in  various  stages  of  decay.  We  are  much  interested  in 
these  memorials  of  former  dynasties  and  of  ages  long  gone 
by,  and  inquire  for  the  bridge  the  building  of  which  they 
commemorate.  “ Oh,  that,”  we  are  told,  “ disappeared  gener- 
ations ago — no  one  knows  when!  ” 

A few  years  ago  the  writer  was  travelling  on  the  Grand 
Canal,  when  a head-wind  prevented  further  progress.  Stroll- 
ing along  the  bank,  we  found  the  peasants  busily  engaged  in 
planting  their  fields.  It  was  May,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
country  was  one  of  great  beauty.  Any  traveller  might  have 


Camel’s-Back  Bridge  in  the  Grounds  of  thf  Emperor’s  Summer  Palace. 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


3X9 


admired  the  minute  and  untiring  industry  which  cultivated 
such  wide  areas  as  if  they  were  gardens.  But  a short  conver- 
sation with  these  same  peasants  brought  to  light  the  fact  that 
the  winter  had  been  to  them  a time  of  bitter  severity.  Floods 
and  drought  having  in  the  previous  year  destroyed  the  crops, 
in  every  village  around  people  had  starved  to  death — nay, 
were  at  that  moment  starving.  The  magistrates  had  given  a 
little  relief,  but  it  was  inadequate,  sporadic,  and  subject  to 
shameful  peculations,  against  which  the  poor  people  had  no 
protection  and  for  which  there  was  no  redress.  Yet  nothing 
of  all  this  appeared  upon  the  surface.  Elsewhere  the  year  had 
been  a prosperous  one,  the  harvests  abundant  and  the  people 
content.  No  memorial  in  the  Peking  Gazette,  no  news  item 
in  the  foreign  journals  published  in  China,  had  taken  account 
of  the  facts.  But  ignorance  of  these  facts  on  the  part  of 
others  certainly  had  no  tendency  to  alter  the  facts  themselves. 
The  people  of  the  district  continued  to  starve,  whether  other 
people  knew  it  or  not.  Even  the  flat  denial  of  the  facts  would 
not  prove  an  adequate  measure  of  relief.  A priori  reason- 
ing as  to  what  the  Chinese  ought  to  be  is  one  thing ; careful 
observation  of  what  they  actually  are  is  quite  another. 

That  many  of  the  evils  in  Chinese  society  the  existence  of 
which  we  have  pointed  out  are  also  to  be  found  in  Western 
“ nominally  Christian  lands,”  we  are  perfectly  aware.  Per- 
haps the  reader  may  have  been  disappointed  not  to  find  a 
more  definite  recognition  of  this  fact,  and  some  systematic 
attempt  at  comparison  and  contrast.  Such  a procedure  was 
in  contemplation,  but  it  had  to  be  given  up.  The  writer’s 
acquaintance  with  any  Western  country  except  his  own  is  of 
an  altogether  too  limited  and  inadequate  character  to  justify 
the  undertaking,  which  must  for  other  reasons  have  failed. 
Let  each  reader  make  his  own  running  comparisons  as  he 
proceeds,  freeing  himself  as  far  as  he  may  be  able  from  “ the 
bias  of  patriotism,”  and  always  giving  the  Chinese  the  benefit 


32° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


of  the  doubt.  After  such  a comparison  shall  have  been  made, 
the  very  lowest  result  which  we  should  expect  would  be  the 
ascertained  fact  that  the  face  of  every  Western  land  is  towards 
the  dawning  morning  of  the  future,  while  the  face  of  China 
is  always  and  everywhere  towards  the  darkness  of  the  remote 
past.  A most  pregnant  fact,  if  it  is  a fact,  and  one  which  we 
beg  the  reader  to  ponder  well ; for  how  came  it  about? 

The  needs  of  China,  let  us  repeat,  are  few.  They  are  only 
Character  and  Conscience.  Nay,  they  are  but  one,  for  Con- 
science is  Character.  It  was  said  of  a famous  maker  of  pianos 
that  he  was  “ like  his  own  instruments — square,  upright,  and 
grand.”  Does  one  ever  meet  any  such  characters  in  China? 

At  the  close  of  the  biography  of  one  of  the  literary  men  of 
England,  who  died  but  a few  years  ago,  occurs  the  following 
passage,  written  by  his  wife:  “The  outside  world  must  judge 
him  as  an  author,  a preacher,  a member  of  society ; but  they 
only  who  lived  with  him  in  the  intimacy  of  everyday  life  at 
home  can  tell  what  he  was  as  a man.  Over  the  real  romance 
of  his  life,  and  over  the  tenderest,  loveliest  passages  in  his 
private  letters,  a veil  must  be  thrown ; but  it  will  not  be  lifting 
it  too  far  to  say,  that  if  in  the  highest,  closest  of  earthly  rela- 
tionships, a love  that  never  failed — pure,  passionate,  for  six- 
and-thirty  years — a love  which  never  stooped  from  its  own 
lofty  level  to  a hasty  word,  an  impatient  gesture,  or  a selfish 
act,  in  sickness  or  in  health,  in  sunshine  or  in  storm,  by  day 
or  by  night,  could  prove  that  the  age  of  chivalry  has  not 
passed  away  forever,  Charles  Kingsley  fulfilled  the  ideal  of  a 
' most  true  and  perfect  knight  to  the  one  woman  blest  with 
that  love  in  time  and  to  eternity.” 

The  fairest  fruit  of  Christian  civilisation  is  in  the  beautiful 
lives  which  it  produces.  They  are  not  rare.  Hundreds  of 
records  of  such  lives  have  been  produced  within  the  present 
generation,  and  there  are  thousands  upon  thousands  of  such 
lives  of  which  no  public  record  ever  appears.  Every  reader 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


321 


must  have  known  of  at  least  one  such  life  of  single-hearted 
devotion  to  the  good  of  others,  and  some  have  been  privileged 
to  know  many  such,  within  the  range  of  their  own  experience. 
How  are  these  lives  to  be  accounted  for,  and  whence  do  they 
draw  their  inspiration  ? We  have  no  wish  to  be  unduly  scep- 
tical, but  after  repeated  and  prolonged  consideration  of  the 
subject,  it  is  our  deliberate  conviction  that  if  the  forces  which 
make  the  lives  of  the  Chinese  what  they  are  were  to  produce 
one  such  character  as  Mrs.  Kingsley  represents  her  husband 
to  have  been,  that  would  be  a moral  miracle  greater  than  any 
or  all  that  are  recorded  in  the  books  of  Taoist  fables.  No 
human  institution  can  escape  from  the  law,  inexorable  because 
divine:  “ By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them.”  The^ forces  of 
Confucianism  have  had  an  abundant  time  in  which  to  work 
out  their  ultimate  results.  We  believe  that  they  have  long 
since  done  all  that  they  are  capable  of  doing,  and  that  from 
them  there  is  no  further  fruit  to  be  expected.  They  have 
achieved  all  that  man  alone  can  do,  and  more  than  he  has 
done  in  any  other  land,  under  any  other  conditions.  And 
after  a patient  survey  of  all  that  China  has  to  offer,  the  most 
friendly  critic  is  compelled,  reluctantly  and  sadly,  to  coincide 
in  the  verdict,  “ The  answer  to  Confucianism  is  China.” 

Three  mutually  inconsistent  theories  are  held  in  regard  to 
reform  in  China.  First,  that  it  is  unnecessary.  This  is  no 
doubt  the  view  of  some  of  the  Chinese  themselves,  though  by 
no  means  of  all  Chinese.  It  is  also  the  opinion  adopted  by 
certain  foreigners,  who  look  at  China  and  the  Chinese  through 
the  mirage  of  distance.  Second,  that  reform  is  impossible. 
This  pessimistic  conclusion  is  arrived  at  by  many  who  have 
had  too  much  occasion  to  know  the  tremendous  obstacles 
which  any  permanent  and  real  reform  must  encounter,  before 
it  can  even  be  tried.  To  such  persons,  the  thorough  reforma- 
tion of  so  vast  a body  as  the  Chinese  people  appears  to  be  a 
task  as  hopeless  as  the  galvanising  into  life  of  an  Egyptian 


322 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


mummy.  To  us,  the  second  of  these  views  appears  only  less 
unreasonable  than  the  first ; but  if  what  has  been  already  said 
fails  to  make  this  evident,  nothing  that  could  here  be  added 
would  be  sufficient  to  do  so. 

To  those  who  are  agreed  that  reform  in  China  is  both 
necessary  and  possible,  the  question  by  what  agency  that  re- 
form is  to  be  brought  about  is  an  important  one,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  there  are  several  different  and  inharmonious 
replies. 

At  the  very  outset,  we  have  to  face  the  inquiry,  Can  China 
be  reformed  from  within  herself?  That  she  can  be  thus  re- 
formed is  taken  for  granted  by  those  of  her  statesmen  who 
are  able  to  perceive  the  vital  need  of  reformation.  An  in- 
stance of  this  assumption  occurred  in  a recent  memorial  in  the 
Peking  Gazette,  in  which  the  writer  complained  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  one  of  the  central  provinces  as  turbulent,  and  stated 
that  a certain  number  of  competent  persons  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  go  through  the  province,  to  explain  to  the  peo- 
ple the  maxims  of  the  Sacred  Edicts  of  K'ang  Hsi,  by  which 
vigorous  measure  it  was  apparently  expected  that  the  char- 
acter of  the  population  would  in  time  be  ameliorated.  This 
explanation  of  moral  maxims  to  the  people  (originally  an  imi- 
tation of  Christian  preaching)  is  a favourite  prescription  for  the 
amendment  of  the  morals  of  the  time,  in  spite  of  the  barren- 
ness of  results.  When  it  fails,  as  it  always  does,  there  is  noth- 
ing to  be  done  but  to  try  it  over  again.  That  it  must  fail,  is 
shown  by  the  longest  experience,  with  every  modification  of 
circumstances  except  in  the  results,  which  are  as  nearly  as 
possible  uniformly  nil.  This  has  been  sufficiently  shown 
already  in  the  instructive  allegory  of  the  eloquent  old  man 
whose  limbs  were  stone. 

But  if  mere  precept  is  inert,  it  might  be  expected  that 
example  would  be  more  efficient.  This  topic  has  also  been 
previously  discussed,  and  we  need  recur  to  it  only  to  point 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


323 


out  the  reason'  why  in  the  end  the  best  examples  always  fail 
to  produce  the  intended  results.  It  is  because  they  have  no 
power  to  propagate  the  impulse  which  gave  them  life.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  case  of  Chang  Chih-tung,  formerly  Governor 
of  Shansi,  where  he  is  reported  to  have  made  the  most  vigor- 
ous efforts  to  put  a stop  to  the  practice  of  opium-smoking 
among  the  officials,  and  opium-raising  among  the  people. 
How  many  of  his  subordinates  would  honestly  co-operate  in 
this  effort,  and  what  could  possibly  be  effected  without  such 
co-operation  ? Every  foreigner  is  compelled  to  recognise  his 
own  comparative  helplessness  in  Chinese  matters  when  the 
intermediaries  through  whom  alone  he  can  act  are  not  in  sym- 
pathy with  his  plans  for  reform.  But  if  a foreigner  is  com- 
paratively helpless,  a Chinese,  no  matter  what  his  rank,  is  not 
less  so.  The  utmost  that  can  be  expected  is  that  when  his 
purpose  is  seen  to  be  inflexibly  fixed,  the  incorruptible  official 
will  carry  everything  before  him  (so  far  as  external  appear- 
ances go),  as  a cat  clears  an  attic  of  rats,  while  the  cat  is  there. 
But  the  moment  the  official  is  removed,  almost  before  he  has 
fairly  gone,  the  rats  are  back  at  their  work,  and  everything 
goes  on  as  before. 

That  a Chinese  statesman  should  cherish  hopes  of  person- 
ally reforming  his  country  is  not  only  creditable  to  him,  but 
perfectly  natural,  for  he  is  cognisant  of  no  other  way  than  the 
one  which  we  have  described.  An  intelligent  British  official, 
who  knows  “ the  terrible  vis  mertice  of  Oriental  apathy  and 
fatalism — that  dumb  stupidity  against  which  Schiller  says  even 
the  gods  are  powerless  ” — and  who  knows  what  is  involved  in 
permanent  “reform,”  would  have  been  able  to  predict  the 
result  with  infallible  precision.  In  referring  to  certain  abuses 
in  southwest  China,  connected  with  the  production  of  copper, 
Mr.  Baber  remarks : “ Before  the  mines  can  be  adequately 
worked,  Yunnan  must  be  peopled,  the  Lolos  must  be  fairly 
treated,  roads  must  be  constructed,  the  facilities  offered  for 


324 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


navigation  by  the  upper  Yang-tse  must  be  improved — in  short, 
China  must  be  civilised.  A thousand  years  would  be  too  short  a 
period  to  allow  of  such  a consummation,  unless  some  force  from 
without  should  accelerate  the  impulse.”  * To  attempt  to  reform 
China  without  “ some  force  from  without,”  is  like  trying  to 
build  a ship  in  the  sea ; all  the  laws  of  air  and  water  conspire 
to  make  it  impossible.  It  is  a principle  of  mechanics  that  a 
force  that  begins  and  ends  in  a machine  has  no  power  to 
move  it. 

Between  Tientsin  and  Peking  there  is  a bend  in  the  Peiho, 
where  the  traveller  sees  half  of  a ruined  temple  standing  on 
the  brink  of  the  bank.  The  other  half  has  been  washed 

* These  significant  words  of  the  late  Mr.  Baber  have  recently  received 
a striking  confirmation  from  a memorial  in  the  Peking  Gazette  of  August, 
1890,  from  T'ang  Chiung,  Director  of  Mines  in  Yunnan,  who  makes  a 
report  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  works  and  the  output.  He  states 
that  “ a great  deal  of  illicit  mining  is  carried  on  by  the  people,  and  the 
officials  are  afraid  of  the  consequences  of  asserting  their  rights  despoti- 
cally. A plan  has,  however,  been  devised  of  buying  up  the  copper  pri- 
vately mined  by  the  natives  at  a low  price,  and  thus  taking  advantage  of 
the  extra  labour  by  a measure  at  once  profitable  and  popular.  In  this 
way  the  memorialist  thinks  the  mines  will  work  well,  and  will  give  no 
excuse  for  the  intrusion  of  outsiders.”  The  rescript  merely  orders  the 
Board  of  Revenue  to  “ take  note.” 

In  a postscript  memorial  the  Director  informs  the  Emperor  that  ten 
thousand  catties  of  copper  are  bought  monthly  from  the  illicit  workers  of 
the  private  mines,  and  that  the  labourers  “ are  not  paid  wages,  but  are 
supplied  with  oil  and  rice.”  In  conclusion  he  “ describes  the  whole  state 
of  the  mines  as  highly  satisfactory.  ” 

It  is  not  every  day  that  an  official  of  the  rank  of  governor  officially  in- 
forms an  Emperor  that  the  laws  of  his  Empire  are  constantly  and  deliber- 
ately violated  by  large  numbers  of  persons  with  whom  the  magistrates 
dare  not  interfere,  but  whom,  on  the  other  hand,  they  mollify  with  oil, 
rice,  and  a sum  of  money  sufficient  to  induce  them  to  part  with  their  stolen 
copper ; and  that  in  consequence  of  this  defiance  of  the  Emperor  and  his 
officials,  the  condition  of  the  Emperor’s  mines  is  “ highly  satisfactory.” 
No  wonder  the  Board  of  Revenue  was  invited  to  “ take  note  ”! 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


325 


away.  Just  below  is  an  elaborate  barrier  against  the  water, 
composed  of  bundles  of  reeds  tied  to  stakes.  Half  of  this  has 
been  carried  away  by  the  floods.  The  gods  stand  exposed 
to  the  storms,  the  land  lies  exposed  to  inundation,  the  river  is 
half  silted  up,  a melancholy  type  of  the  condition  of  the  Em- 
pire. There  is  classical  authority  for  the  dictum  that  “ rotten 
wood  cannot  be  carved.”  It  must  be  wholly  cut  away,  and 
new  material  grafted  upon  the  old  stock,  China  can  never  be 
reformed  from  within. 

It  is  not  long  since  the  idea  was  widely  entertained  in  the 
lands  of  the  West  that  China  was  to  be  regenerated  by  being 
brought  into  “the  sisterhood  of  nations.”  The  process  by 
which  she  was  introduced  into  that  “ sisterhood  ” was  not  in- 
deed such  as  to  give  rise  to  any  well-founded  hopes  of  national 
regeneration  as  a consequence.  And  now  that  the  leading 
nations  have  had  their  several  representatives  at  Peking  for 
more  than  thirty  years,  what  beneficial  effect  has  their  presence 
had  upon  the  evils  from  which  China  suffers  ? The  melan- 
choly truth  is  that  the  international  relations  of  the  great 
powers  are  precisely  those  in  which  they  appear  to  the  least 
advantage.  The  Chinese  are  keen  observers ; what  have  they 
perceived  in  the  conduct  of  any  one  of  the  states  of  the  West 
to  lead  to  the  conviction  that  those  states  are  actuated  by 
motives  more  elevated  than  those  which  actuate  the  Empire 
which  they  wish  to  “ reform  ” ? And  now  that  China  is  her- 
self becoming  a “power,”  she  has  her  hands  fully  occupied  in 
playing  off  one  set  of  foreign  interests  against  another,  without 
taking  lessons  of  those  who  are  much  more  concerned  in 
“ exploiting  ” China  than  in  teaching  her  morals.  If  China  is 
to  be  reformed,  it  will  not  be  done  by  diplomacy. 

There  are  not  wanting  those  who  are  firmly  persuaded  that 
what  is  needed  by  China  is  not  merely  admission  into  the 
family  of  nations,  but  unrestricted  intercourse,  free  trade,  and 
the  brotherhood  of  man.  The  gospel  of  commerce  is  the 


326 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


panacea  for  China’s  needs ; more  ports,  more  imports,  a lower 
tariff,  and  no  transit  taxgs.  Perhaps  we  do  not  hear  so  much 
of  this  now  as  two  or  three  decades  ago,  during  which  time 
the  Chinese  have  penetrated  more  fully  than  before  into  Aus- 
tralia and  the  United  States,  with  results  not  always  most 
favourable  to  “unrestricted  intercourse”  and  the  “brother- 
hood of  man.”  Have  there  not  also  been  loud  whispers  that 
Chinese  tea  and  Chinese  straw-braid  have  been  defective  in 
some  desirable  qualities,  and  has  not  this  lack  been  partly 
matched  by  defects  in  certain  articles  imported  into  China 
from  the  lands  of  the  West? 

As  an  auxiliary  of  civilisation,  commerce  is  invaluable,  but 
it  is  not  by  itself  an  instrument  of  reform.  Adam  Smith,  the 
great  apostle  of  modern  political  economy,  defined  man  as  “ a 
trading  animal  ” ; no  two  dogs,  he  says,  exchange  bones.  But 
supposing  they  did  so,  and  supposing  that  in  every  great  city 
the  canine  population  were  to  establish  a bone  exchange,  what 
would  be  the  inevitable  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  dogs? 
The  great  trading  nations  of  antiquity  were  not  the  best  na- 
tions, but  the  worst.  That  the  same  is  not  true  of  their  mod- 
ern successors  is  certainly  not  due  to  their  trade,  but  to  wholly 
different  causes.  It  has  been  well  said  that  commerce,  like 
Christianity,  is  cosmical  in  its  aim ; but  commerce,  like  the 
rainbow,  always  bends  towards  the  pot  of  gold. 

It  is  sufficient  to  point  to  the  continent  of  Africa,  with  its 
rum  and  its  slave  traffic,  each  introduced  by  trading  and  by 
Christian  nations,  and  each  an  unspeakable  curse,  to  show 
that,  taken  by  itself,  there  is  no  reformatory  influence  in  com- 
merce. 

There  are  many  friends  of  China  well  acquainted  with  her 
condition,  whose  prescription  is  more  comprehensive  than  any 
of  those  which  we  have  named.  In  their  view,  China  needs 
Western  culture,  Western  science,  and  what  Mr.  Meadows 
called  “ funded  civilisation.”  The  Chinese  have  been  a cul- 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


327 


tured  nation  for  millenniums.  They  had  already  been  civilised 
for  ages  when  our  ancestors  were  rooting  in  the  primeval  for- 
ests. In  China,  if  anywhere  on  the  globe,  that  recipe  has 
been  faithfully  tried.  There  is  in  culture  as  such  nothing  of 
a reformatory  nature.  Culture  is  selfish.  Its  conscious  or 
unconscious  motto  is,  “ I,  rather  than  you.”  As  we  daily  per- 
ceive in  China,  where  our  boasted  culture  is  scouted,  there  is 
no  scorn  like  intellectual  scorn.  If  Chinese  culture  has  been 
unable  to  exert  a due  restraining  influence  upon  those  who 
have  been  so  thoroughly  steeped  in  it,  is  it  probable  that  this 
result  will  be  attained  by  a foreign  exotic  ? 

Of  science  the  Chinese  are  unquestionably  in  the  greatest 
need.  They  need  every  modem  science  for  the  development 
of  the  still  latent  resources  of  their  mighty  Empire.  This  they 
are  themselves  beginning  clearly  to  perceive,  and  will  perceive 
still  more  clearly  in  the  immediate  future.  But  is  it  certain 
that  an  acquaintance  with  science  will  exert  an  advantageous 
moral  influence  over  the  Empire  ? What  is  the  process  by 
which  this  is  to  take  place  ? No  science  lies  nearer  to  our 
modern  advancement  than  chemistry.  Would  the  spread  of 
a general  knowledge  of  chemistry  in  China,  therefore,  be  a 
moral  agency  for  regenerating  the  people  ? Would  it  not 
rather  introduce  new  and  unthought-of  possibilities  of  fraud 
and  violence  throughout  ever}r  department  of  life  ? Would  it 
be  quite  safe,  Chinese  character  being  what  it  is,  to  diffuse 
through  the  Empire,  together  with  an  unlimited  supply  of 
chemicals,  an  exact  formula  for  the  preparation  of  every 
variety  of  modern  explosives  ? 

By  “ funded  civilisation  ” are  meant  the  material  results  of 
the  vast  development  of  Western  progress.  It  includes  the 
manifold  marvels  resulting  from  steam  and  electricity.  This, 
we  are  told,  is  what  China  really  needs,  and  it  is  all  that  she 
needs.  Railways  from  every  city  to  every  other  city,  steam 
navigation  on  her  inland  waters,  a complete  postal  system, 


328 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


national  banks,  coined  silver,  telegraphs  and  telephones  as 
nerves  of  connection — these  are  to  be  the  visible  signs  of  the 
new  and  happy  day  for  China. 

Perhaps  this  was  the  half-formed  idea  of  Chang  Chih-tung, 
when  in  his  memorial  on  the  subject  of  railways  he  affirmed 
that  they  will  do  away  with  many  risks  incidental  to  river 
transport,  “such  as  stealing  by  the  crew.”  Will  the  accumu- 
lation, then,  of  funded  civilization  diminish  moral  evils  ? Do 
railways  ensure  honesty  in  their  employes,  or  even  in  their 
managers  ? Have  we  not  read  “A  Chapter  of  Erie,”  showing 
how  that  great  highway  between  states  was  stolen  bodily,  the 
stockholders  helpless,  and  “ nobody  to  blame  ” ? And  will 
they  do  these  things  better  in  China  than  it  has  as  yet  been 
possible  to  be  sure  of  having  them  done  in  England  or  in 
America  ? Is  funded  civilisation  an  original  cause  by  itself, 
or  is  it  the  effect  of  a long  train  of  complex  causes,  working 
in  slow  harmony  for  great  periods  of  time  ? AVould  the  intro- 
duction of  the  ballot-box  into  China  make  the  Chinese  a 
democratic  people,  and  fit  them  for  republican  rule  ? No 
more  will  funded  civilisation  produce  in  the  Chinese  Empire 
those  conditions  which  accompany  it  in  the  West,  unless  the 
causes  which  have  produced  the  conditions  in  the  West  are 
set  in  motion  to  produce  the  like  results  in  China.  Those 
causes  are  not  material,  they  are  moral. 

How  is  it  that  with  the  object-lessons  of  Hongkong,  of 
Shanghai  and  other  treaty  ports  before  them,  the  Chinese 
do  not  introduce  “ model  settlements  ” into  the  native  cities 
of  China  ? Because  they  do  not  wish  for  such  changes,  and 
would  not  tolerate  them  if  they  were  introduced.  How  is  it 
that  with  the  object-lesson  of  an  honest  administration  of  the 
Imperial  Maritime  Customs  before  their  eyes  for  nearly  a third 
of  a century,  the  government  does  not  adopt  such  methods 
elsewhere  ? Because,  in  the  present  condition  of  China,  the 
adoption  of  such  methods  of  taxation  of  Chinese  by  Chinese 


THE  REAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA 


3 29 


is  an  absolute  moral  impossibility.  British  character  and  con- 
science have  been  more  than  a thousand  years  in  attaining 
their  present  development,  and  they  cannot  be  suddenly  taken 
up  by  the  Chinese  for  their  own,  and  set  in  operation,  like  a 
Krupp  gun  from  Essen,  mounted  and  ready  to  be  discharged. 

The  forces  which  have  developed  character  and  conscience 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  are  as  definite  and  as  certain  facts  of 
history  as  the  landing  of  Julius  Caesar  in  Britain,  or  the  in- 
vasion of  William  the  Conqueror.  These  forces  came  with 
Christianity,  and  they  grew  with  Christianity.  In  proportion 
as  Christianity  roots  itself  in  the  popular  heart  these  products 
flourish,  and  not  otherwise. 

Listen  for  a moment  to  the  great  advocate  of  culture,  Mat- 
thew Arnold : “ Every  educated  man  loves  Greece,  owes  grat- 
itude to  Greece.  Greece  was  the  lifter-up  to  the  nations  of 
the  banner  of  art  and  science,  as  Israel  was  the  lifter-up  of  the 
banner  of  righteousness.  Now  the  world  cannot  do  without 
art  and  science.  And  the  lifter-up  of  the  banner  of  art  and 
science  was  naturally  much  occupied  with  them,  and  conduct 
was  a plain,  homely  matter.  And  this  brilliant  Greece  per- 
ished for  lack  of  attention  to  conduct;  for  want  of  conduct, 
steadiness,  character.  ...  Nay,  and  the  victorious  revelation 
now,  even  now,  in  this  age,  when  more  of  beauty  and  more  of 
knowledge  are  so  much  needed,  and  knowledge  at  any  rate 
is  so  highly  esteemed — the  revelation  which  rules  the  world 
even  now  is  not  Greece’s  revelation,  but  Judaea’s;  not  the 
pre-eminence  of  art  and  science,  but  the  pre-eminence  of 
righteousness.” 

In  order  to  reform  China  the  springs  of  character  must 
be  reached  and  purified,  conscience  must  be  practically  en- 
throned, and  no  longer  imprisoned  in  its  own  palace  like  the 
long  line  of  Japanese  Mikados.  It  is  a truth  well  stated  by 
one  of  the  leading  exponents  of  modern  philosophy,  that  “ there 
is  no  alchemy  by  which  to  get  golden  conduct  from  leaden 


33° 


CHINESE  CHARACTERISTICS 


instincts.”  What  China  needs  is  righteousness,  and  in  order  to 
attain  it,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  she  have  a knowledge 
of  God  and  a new  conception  of  man,  as  well  as  of  the  relation 
of  man  to  God.  She  needs  a new  life  in  every  individual  soul, 
in  the  family,  and  in  society.  The  manifold  needs  of  China 
we  find,  then,  to  be  a single  imperative  need.  It  will  be  met 
permanently,  completely,  only  by  Christian  civilisation. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


BO  Y,  a term  used  by  foreigners  in  China  to  denote  the  head- 
servant,  irrespective  of  his  age. 

CA  TTY,  a.  Chinese  pound,  equal  by  treaty  to  one  and  one- 
third  pounds  avoirdupois. 

COMPRADORE , a steward  or  agent. 

F&NG-SHUI,  literally,  “wind-water.”  A complicated  sys- 
tem of  geomantic  superstition,  by  which  the  good  luck  of 
sites  and  buildings  is  determined. 

K’ANG,  a raised  platform  of  adobe  or  of  bricks,  used  as  a 
bed,  and  heated  by  means  of  flues. 

K’O  TOU,  or  KOTOW,  the  act  of  prostration  and  striking 
the  head  on  the  ground  in  homage  or  worship. 

LI,  a Chinese  measure  of  length,  three  or  more  of  which  equal 
an  English  mile. 

SQUEEZE,  a forced  contribution  exacted  by  those  through 
whose  hands  the  money  of  others  passes. 

TAEL,  a weight  of  money  equivalent  to  a sixteenth  of  a Chi- 
nese pound ; an  ounce. 

T A OTA  I , an  officer  of  the  third  rank,  who  is  intendant  of  a 
circuit. 

YAMEN,  the  office  and  residence  of  a Chinese  official. 


33i 


Within  the  Four  Seas  all  are  brethren. 

Confucian  Analects , XII.,  v.  4. 


The  scientific  study  of  Man  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  branches 
of  knowledge. 


O.  W.  Holmes. 


We  are  firm  believers  in  the  maxim  that  for  all  right  judgment 
of  any  man  or  thing  it  is  useful — nay,  essential — to  see  his 
good  qualities  before  pronouncing  on  his  bad. 

Carlyle. 


332 


INDEX. 


Anti-foreign  literature  in  China,  112. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  quoted  on  Greece,  329. 

Baber,  Mr.,  quoted  on  belief  in  the  growth  of  coal,  260. 

Chinese  copper-mining,  324. 

Chinese  lack  of  sympathy,  279. 

Chinese  truthfulness,  270. 
length  of  the  Chinese  mile,  52. 
reform  in  China,  323. 

Szuchuan  farm-houses,  244. 
treatment  of  victims  of  fever,  206. 

Buddhism,  Confucianism,  and  Taoism,  310-312. 

influence  of,  on  the  practice  of  virtue,  186. 
introduction  of,  into  China,  119. 
spares  animal  life,  136. 

Buddhists  and  Taoists,  number  of,  in  China,  294. 

Burying  alive  in  China,  211-213. 

Callery,  M.,  quoted  on  Chinese  ceremony,  171. 

Cameron,  Mr.,  quoted  on  Chinese  commercial  honesty,  279,  280. 
Carlyle’s  “Frederick  the  Great”  quoted  on  the  goodness  of  human  na- 
ture, 317,  318. 

Chang  Chih-Tung,  efforts  of,  to  stop  opium-smoking,  323. 

memorial  of,  on  railways,  328. 

China  and  France  compared,  146. 

the  Roman  Empire  compared,  313. 

Turkey  compared  in  treatment  of  women,  245. 

Western  lands  compared,  105,  142,  143,  236,  282,  319,  320. 
intercourse  between,  98,  99. 
golden  age  of,  in  the  past,  115. 
history  of,  shows  futility  of  Confucianism,  310. 
reform  in,  321  ff. 

relation  of,  to  Western  lands,  121,  122,  314,  325,  326. 

333 


334 


INDEX 


Chinese  ability  to  sleep  anywhere,  93,  94. 
adapted  to  all  climates,  146,  147. 
adultery,  punishment  of,  210,  21 1. 
almanac  predicts  the  weather,  etc.,  240,  241. 
ancestral  worship  a bondage,  184. 

inconsistent  with  Christianity,  185. 
without  ethical  value,  310. 
and  ancient  Romans  alike  in  ideas  of  morals,  1 1 7. 
and  Anglo-Saxons,  ability  of,  to  receive  a reproof,  80. 

behavior  of,  in  sickness,  95,  96. 
when  watched,  94. 

compared  in  regard  for  ceremony,  102,  103. 

comparison  of,  difficult,  14. 

directness  of,  compared,  65,  66. 

endurance  of  evils,  96. 

filial  piety  of,  compared,  182. 

ideas  of,  about  neighbors,  229. 

crowding,  134,  135. 
industry  of,  compared,  33,  44. 
misunderstand  one  another,  61,  62. 
nerves  of,  compared,  92. 
obstinacy  of,  compared,  80. 
patience  of,  compared,  45,  46. 
patriotism  of,  compared,  114. 
politeness  of,  compared,  35,  36. 
race  vitality,  146. 

races,  rivalry  between,  14,  15,  96,  97. 
salutations,  41. 

settlements  and  taxation  compared,  328,  329. 
sociability,  167. 

foreign  dress  compared,  99,  100,  125-129. 

Jews  compared,  154. 

the  United  States,  respect  for  law,  compared,  238,  239. 

weather  contrasted,  239,  240. 
animals,  wrhen  dead,  all  eaten,  21. 
articles  not  to  be  had  ready-made,  25,  137,  138. 
atheism  of  the,  292,  293. 
beggars,  gifts  to,  191,  192. 

persistence  of,  154. 
boys  cannot  learn  out  of  school,  207. 

running  away  from  home,  203. 
brides,  treatment  of,  198. 
brothers,  relations  between,  227,  228. 


INDEX 


335 


Chinese  census,  inexactness  of,  57,  232. 

suspicion  of,  258. 
ceremonial  reverence,  300,  301. 
ceremony,  foreign  indifference  to,  10 1,  103. 

relation  of,  to  politeness,  35-37. 
character,  contradictory  elements  in  the,  268. 

difficulty  of  writing  upon  the,  10. 
characters  often  wrongly  written,  55,  56. 
ch'i , nature  and  evolution  of,  218-224. 

childlessness  of  women  occasion  for  divorce,  etc.,  179,  197,  198. 
children  a source  of  domestic  strife,  217. 
disobedient,  172,  173. 
passive,  92. 

suspicious  by  nature,  248,  251. 
taught  to  be  insincere,  273,  274. 
troops  of,  everywhere,  145. 
cities,  filth  of,  138,  139. 

civilisation  and  Western  civilisation  compared,  143. 

chief  inconveniences  of,  139. 
clannishness,  250. 

classics  contain  much  insincerity,  267. 

orthodox  Chinese  reverence  for  the,  116,  117. 
purity  of  the,  288. 

quoted  on  filial  piety,  172,  176,  179,  180. 
commercial  honesty  of  the,  279-281. 

life  full  of  suspicion,  254-256. 
compared  to  the  bamboo,  80,  81. 
concubinage,  cause  of,  179. 
concubines,  treatment  of,  202. 
cookery,  advantage  of,  20. 
cooking-kettles  thin,  22. 
corpses,  extortion  in  case  of  removal  of,  209. 
credulity  and  suspicion  all-prevalent,  265. 
cruelty,  213-215. 

cue,  introduced  by  the  Manchus,  118,  119. 
currency,  evils  of  the,  140-142. 
customs,  reasons  for  the  fixity  of  the,  117,  12 1. 
daughters  disregarded,  183. 

married,  avenging  the  wrongs  of,  223. 
omitted  from  the  family  registers,  199. 
unwelcome,  199. 

-in-law,  abuse  of,  201,  202,  204. 

regarded  as  servants,  201. 


336  INDEX 

Chinese  daughters-in-law,  suicide  of,  201,  202. 

visiting  their  families,  199-201. 
death  of  a,  excites  suspicion,  254. 
debts  seldom  paid  when  due,  273. 
deformed  and  unfortunate,  treatment  of  the,  196,  197. 
dialects,  variations  in,  48,  252. 
diet  simple  and  inexpensive,  19,  20. 
disregard  of  hygiene,  138,  139,  148. 
district-magistrate  beating  a prisoner,  214. 

duties  of  a,  230-232. 
distrust  of  one  another,  246-249. 
divinities  cheated  by  their  worshippers,  302-304. 

originally  human,  290. 
divorce,  legal  grounds  for,  179. 
do  not  care  for  exercise,  92,  93. 
dogs,  multiplicity  of,  136. 
dread  of  giving  offence,  67. 
dress,  disadvantages  of,  125-129. 
early  rising,  32. 
education,  defects  of,  28. 
emigration,  nature  of,  146,  147,  165,  166. 

Emperor,  responsibility  of,  to  heaven,  234. 
endurance  of  pain,  94. 
eunuchs,  due  to  suspicion,  257. 
excuses,  plausibility  of,  71,  72,  177. 
families  dispersing  to  beg,  161. 

having  property  in  common,  217. 
suspicion  in,  246,  247. 

family  life  deficient  in  sympathy,  199-202,  210. 

the  unit  of  social  life,  14,  226,  227. 
famine  relief,  187,  190. 

inadequacy  of,  108,  159,  195,  196. 
farmer,  relation  of,  to  the  roads,  109-111. 

work  of  the,  29,  30. 
fatalism,  163,  164. 
feasts  protracted,  43. 
feng-skui  and  railways,  122,  123. 

belief  in,  leads  to  suspicion  of  foreigners,  260. 
fevers,  dread  of,  206. 

floods,  droughts,  and  famine,  frequency  of,  96,  159-161. 

fortune-telling,  etc.,  164,  309. 

furniture  clumsy,  131,  132. 

government  exemplifies  suspicion,  257,  258. 


INDEX 


33  7 


Chinese  government,  insincerity  of  the,  283,  284. 

patriarchal,  107. 
permanence  of  the,  117. 
histories,  length  of,  44. 

question  of  the  veracity  of,  268,  269. 
houses,  discomforts  of,  130-134. 
ignorance  of  history  and  political  economy,  165. 
infanticide,  179. 

infants,  treatment  of,  when  dead,  205,  206. 
inns,  disadvantages  of,  135,  137. 
insincerity  and  Anglo-Saxon  impatience,  45,  46. 
institutions,  a cause  of  the  perpetuity  of,  235. 

Japanese,  and  Mongol  worship  compared,  299. 
jugglers,  exhibitions  of,  protracted,  43. 
laborer,  cheerfulness  of  the,  33,  168,  169. 
poverty  of  the,  194. 
work  of  the,  protracted,  30. 
language  exhibits  contempt  for  women,  246. 

ignorance  of,  on  the  part  of  foreigners,  100,  101. 
origin  of,  mysterious,  118. 
vagueness  of  the,  82-86. 
lawsuits  always  imminent,  96. 

development  of,  224,  225. 
literary  examinations,  persistence  in,  28,  29,  154. 

protracted,  43,  44. 

literati,  the  chief  enemies  of  foreigners,  105. 
literature,  excellencies  of,  288. 

influence  of,  upon  Chinese  history,  116,  117. 
longevity  of  the,  147,  148. 
love  of  flowers,  167,  168. 
manufactures,  simple  machinery  for,  25. 
merchants  and  shops,  31. 
mining,  abuses  in,  323,  324. 
modesty,  true  and  false,  278,  279. 
money,  complications  of,  255. 

variations  in,  49,  50. 
monotheism,  question  of,  289. 
mothers  and  daughters,  quarrels  of,  199,  200. 
mourning,  174,  179,  180. 
names,  confusion  in  regard  to,  56,  57. 
nature-worship,  290,  291. 
neighbors,  mutual  responsibility  of,  228,  229. 
obstinacy  of  the,  60,  78,  80. 


338  INDEX 

Chinese  officials,  graduated  responsibility  of,  232-234. 
hard-worked,  31,  32. 
have  no  independent  salaries,  235,  236. 
orders  of,  disregarded,  78,  79. 
opium-smoking,  official  proclamations  against,  323. 
overcrowding  the  normal  condition,  94,  134,  135. 
parricides  infrequent,  181. 

proceedings  in  case  of,  229. 

patients  in  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  bearing  pain,  94. 

delay  in  coming,  87. 
kindness  to  one  another, 
207. 

neglect  orders,  76,  77. 

patriotism,  nature  of,  m-114. 
peaceableness,  225. 
peace-makers,  17,  221,  222,  224. 
people,  classification  of  the,  28. 
polite  vocabulary  of,  274,  275. 
polygamy,  relation  of,  to  filial  piety,  184. 

sanctioned  by  Confucianism,  308. 
population,  checks  on  the,  145,  194. 

density  of  the,  144-146,  152,  153,  194. 
postal  service,  lack  of,  139. 
poverty  and  ignorance  of  the,  88,  89. 
prevalence  of,  194,  195. 
reduced  to  a science,  152,  153. 
precedents,  importance  of,  123,  124. 
presents,  offered  through  politeness,  39. 

reception  of,  17,  276,  277. 
provincial  clubs,  187. 
punishments,  cruelty  of,  213,  214. 
quarrels,  conduct  of,  221,  222. 
race,  perpetuity  of,  due  to  moral  forces,  287. 
rate  of  interest  due  to  lack  of  confidence,  25$,  256. 
rebellions  allowed  to  gain  headway,  243. 
excitement  in  time  of,  212. 
punishment  of  participants  in,  234,  235. 
put  down  among  Mohammedans,  156. 
waste  of  life  in,  144-146. 

reforms  prevented  by  conservatism,  etc.,  258,  259. 
refugees,  gifts  to,  192. 
regard  for  human  life,  21 1,  212,  239. 
relationships  complex,  226,  227. 


INDEX 


339 


Chinese  religions  imply  conformity,  119. 

intermingled,  294-296,  306,  307,  31 1,  312. 
respect  for  law,  237,  238. 
responsibility,  evils  of,  234-236. 

excellencies  of,  236. 
relation  to  foreigners,  236,  237. 
reviling,  219-222. 

oblique,  71. 

roads,  character  of  the,  108-m,  139,  208. 
scholars,  the  leading  class,  163. 
unpractical,  104. 

school-children,  methods  of  study  and  recitation,  251. 
secret  sects  forbidden,  257,  258. 
self-mutilation  through  filial  piety,  178,  239. 
servants  difficult  to  dismiss,  247,  248. 
good  qualities  of,  168. 
mulishness  of,  77,  78. 
sociability,  167. 
social  calls,  length  of,  46,  47. 
society,  solidarity  of,  illustrated,  55,  227,  250,  282. 
squeezes,  pervasiveness  of,  192. 
theory  of,  282. 

streets,  obstruction  of,  no,  in. 
superstitions,  prevalence  of,  296,  297. 
suspicion  of  foreigners,  260-264. 

strangers,  251-253. 
suttee,  practice  of,  215. 
sympathy,  emptiness  of,  279. 
temples,  regard  for,  298-300. 
theatricals  protracted,  43. 
tithing  system,  231,  232. 
tobacco,  drying  and  curing  of,  26. 
travellers,  treatment  of,  208-210,  250,  251. 
treatment  of  women  shows  suspicion,  244-246. 
tribute  rice,  handling  of,  25,  26. 
uniformity  and  differences  among  the,  48. 
village  constable,  functions  of,  230. 

importance  of,  in  study  of  social  life,  14. 
the  unit  of  social  life,  226. 
villages,  population  massed  in,  244. 
walls  exhibit  suspicion,  242-244. 
weights  and  measures,  variations  in,  49-53. 
widows  re-marrying,  204. 


34° 


INDEX 


Chinese  wives,  position  of,  183,  203,  204. 

wives  and  children,  sale  of,  204,  205. 
women,  clothing  of,  economical,  22. 
workmen,  dilatoriness  of,  44,  45. 
writing-materials,  inconvenience  of,  136,  137. 

Chu  Hsi,  influence  of,  upon  China,  293. 

Confucian  and  Christian  theory  of  family  relations,  183. 

theory  of  influence  of  rulers  on  the  people,  115. 
Confucianism  and  Christianity,  sacred  books  viewed  alike,  116. 
defects  and  errors  of,  307-310. 
moral  quality  of,  316. 

to  be  estimated  by  its  effects,  287-289,  321. 
value  of,  314. 

Confucius  and  his  night-dress,  129. 

system,  307-312. 

Ju-Pei,  267. 

the  truthfulness  of  his  history,  269,  270. 

Buddha,  and  Laotze,  relations  between,  296,  31 1,  312. 
not  an  originator,  1 1 5. 
quoted  on  filial  piety,  175,  176. 

interest  in  public  affairs,  112. 
period  of  three  years’  mourning,  174,  179,  180. 
respecting  spiritual  beings,  184,  299. 

Cooke,  Mr.  G.  W.,  quoted  on  Chinese  character,  9. 

cooking,  20. 
lying,  271. 

Davis,  Sir  John,  quoted  on  Chinese  cheerfulness,  33. 

De  Quincey,  quoted  on  Chinese  obstinacy,  60. 

Dispensaries  and  hospitals  in  China,  reports  of,  149. 

Drowning,  neglect  of,  by  the  Chinese,  207,  208. 

Elgin,  Lord,  address  of,  to  Shanghai  merchants,  quoted,  15. 

Faber,  Dr.  Ernst,  quoted  on  Confucianism,  307-310. 

Feathers  little  used  by  the  Chinese,  13 1. 

Foreign  accomplishments,  Chinese  indifferent  to,  103-105. 

dispensaries  and  hospitals,  suspicion  towards,  263. 
intercourse  with  China  shows  suspicion,  61,  263,  264. 
Foreigners  in  China  treated  with  indifference,  209. 

Heaven  influenced  by  man,  239. 

worship  of,  by  the  Chinese,  291,  292. 


INDEX 


341 


Henry,  Dr.  B.  C.,  quoted  on  Chinese  economy,  23,  24. 

Hill,  Rev.  David,  quoted  on  Chinese  charities,  187. 

Hosie,  Mr.,  quoted  on  Chinese  boat-trackers,  168. 

Hue,  M.,  quoted  on  a Chinese  filial  letter,  180,  181. 

Chinese  lack  of  interest  in  politics,  112,  113. 
religion,  306. 

stopping  the  braying  of  donkeys,  135. 
treatment  of  Chinese  prisoners,  214. 


K'ang  Hsi  and  the  pirates,  155. 

edicts  of,  explained  to  the  people,  322. 

Kidd,  Professor,  quoted  on  Chinese  sincerity,  266. 

Kingsley,  life  of,  quoted,  320. 

Legge,  Dr.  James,  quoted  on  Chinese  filial  piety,  172. 

Confucianism,  288. 

the  truthfulness  of  Confucius,  269,  270. 
Little,  Mr.  A.,  quoted  on  Chinese  boat-trackers,  168,  169. 

length  of  the  Chinese  mile,  52. 

Meadows,  Mr.,  quoted  on  Chinese  atheism,  293. 

lack  of  sympathy,  279. 
literature,  288. 

M.  Hue,  306. 

studying  a foreign  country,  13. 

Mencius  and  the  king,  267. 

quoted  on  filial  piety,  1 78. 

the  feeling  of  pity,  186. 

history  by  Confucius,  269. 

Mohammedan  rebellion  in  Turkestan,  156,  234. 

Money,  misunderstandings  about,  59,  60. 

Opium,  effect  of,  upon  the  Chinese  race,  145. 


Peking  Gazette,  difficulty  of  comprehending  the  inwardness  of  the,  72,  73. 
memorial  in,  on  bad  characters,  322. 

filial  piety,  178. 
working  copper-mines,  324. 
quoted  on  abuse  of  daughters -in-law,  202. 
burning  alive  in  China,  215. 
responsibility  of  officials,  233,  234. 


342 


INDEX 


Rain,  antipathy  of  Chinese  to,  139,  140. 

prayers  for,  297,  298,  305. 

Reform  in  China,  nature  of,  79,  321  ff. 

Richthofen,  Baron,  quoted  on  the  Chinese  character,  268. 

Sacred  edict  expounded  to  produce  reformation,  322. 

quoted  on  filial  piety,  174,  177. 

Sickness,  behavior  in  time  of,  95,  96,  169,  206,  207. 

of  the  poor,  of  women  and  children,  neglected,  203,  205. 
Singer,  Dr.,  quoted  on  Chinese  histories,  268. 

Smallpox,  Chinese  indifference  to,  205,  206. 

Virtue,  accounts  of,  kept,  187,  188. 
acts  of,  described,  188-191. 
the  practice  of,  186. 

Wade,  Sir  Thomas,  quoted  on  Chinese  religion,  306. 

Williams,  Dr.  S.  W.,  quoted  on  Chinese  ceremony,  171,  172. 

the  ideal  scholar,  288. 

Wool  little  used  by  the  Chinese,  126. 

Yates,  Dr.,  quoted  on  Chinese  filial  piety,  172,  184. 


Date  Due 


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